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ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 


THE  MACMII.LAN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    nOSTON    •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   ■    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


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ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


FOR 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS 


A    DESK    MANUAL 

FOR 

CLASSROOM    TEACHERS 


BY 


ELLA    VICTORIA    DOBBS,   B.S.,  A.M. 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR   OK    MANUAL   ARTS 
UNlVERSnV    OF   MISSOURI 


N    2  " 


'17 

Nrt)  Poll; 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

191 7 

/(//  rif^liti  rvitrvid 


Copyright,  1917, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  May,  1917. 


Nortoootj  ^renB 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  IJcrwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

The  studies  which  form  the  basis  of  this  book 
were  undertaken,  not  so  much  to  prove  the  value 
of  the  methods,  as  to  test  the  extent  of  their  use- 
fulness under  the  conditions  existing  in  the  ordi- 
nary school.  Illustrative  methods  in  various  forms 
have,  for  some  time,  formed  a  regular  part  of  the 
work  in  many  progressive  schools,  but  in  some 
quarters  the  impression  has  prevailed  that  their 
usefulness  is  possible  only  under  especially  favor- 
able conditions.  A  report  of  these  studies  was 
first  submitted  as  a  Master's  Thesis  in  the  Gradu- 
ate School  of  the  University  of  Missouri.  Some 
of  the  principles  upon  which  these  studies  are 
based  are  further  discussed  in  a  l)ulletin  recently 
issued  by  the  Manual  Arts  Department  of  the 
University  of  Missouri.  The  list  of  projects  de- 
scribed in  this  book  includes  also  many  problems 
worked  out  in  Columbia  and  other  towns  as  a  part 
of  the  everyday  program  and  not  as  special  studies. 
All  of  the  projects  here  described  were  carried  out 
in  the  regular  classroom  by  the  regular  teacher 
under  conditions  common  to  the  average  school. 


VI  PREFACE 

Tlu'  suggestions  offered  apply  to  schools  which 
are  working  under  the  limitations  of  restricted 
space,  scant  materials,  and  a  more  or  less  rigid 
course  of  study.  These  outlines  and  suggestions 
are  offered,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  help  to  bring 
into  all  classrooms  greater  freedom  for  both 
teacher  and  pupil,  greater  opportunity  for  the  de- 
velopment of  resourcefulness  and  independence 
in  thought  and  action,  and  last,  but  by  no  means 
least,  to  bring  the  real  joy  of  activity  into  some 
classrooms  that  have  known  before  only  mechan- 
ical routine.  Grateful  acknowledgment  is  here 
made  to  the  teachers  of  the  Columbia  schools  for 
their  loyal  support  and  enthusiastic  cooperation, 
and  to  Dean  W.  W.  Charters  for  assistance  in  the 
organization  of  the  material. 

ELLA   VICTORIA   DOBBS. 

University  of  Missouri, 
June,  1916. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


CHArXER  PAGE 

1.     The  I'oint  of  Vikw i 

Introduction i 

Ilhislrative  handwork  :    Its  scope  and  justification  5 
Tlie  relation  jjetween  technical  and  expressionai 

handwork        .         .         .         .         .         .11 

Handwork  in  relation  to  general  subject  matter     .  22 

Illustrative  handwork  and  expense        ...  25 

Free  expression  and  classroom  disciijlinc       .         .  26 

Criticism  and  growth    ......  32 

II.     V'ARiors  Forms  ok  Illustkatiox    .         .         .        •  38 

Posters         ........  38 

Hookmakin;^          .          .         .         .         .         .         •  5- 

Sandtai>le  representations     .....  57 

Illustrative  construction 65 

111.     Tm;  Selection  ok  Toimcs  for  Concrete  Illu.s- 

I  RAMON              ......  75 

Topics  not  suited  to  concrete  illustration       .         .  75 

Topics  well  suited  to  concrete  illustration      .         .  77 

Suggested  topics  in  geography      .  .         .  -79 

Fifth  grade    .......  79 

Sixth  grade 87 

.Seventh  grade        ......  94 

Suggested  topics  in  history  .....  97 

Fifth  grade     .......  97 

Sixth  grade    .......  102 

Seventh  grade  .  .104 

vii 


Vlll 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


CHAPTBR 


IV. 


Suggested    outline    for    illustrative    methods  for 

South  America        .         .         .         .  .108 

a.  Organization  based  on  order  in  text  .     108 

b.  Organization  based  on  child's  interest  .     116 

Lists  of  Projects  Carried  out  in  One  Year  by 
Various  Teachers  in  : 


Fifth  grade  . 
Sixth  grade  . 
Seventh  grade 


I. 
2. 

3- 
4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 

II. 

12. 

13- 

14. 

15- 
16. 

17- 


V.     Selected  Projects  in  Detail 
Geography  of  Asia 

Development  of  United  States  to  1850 
Geography  of  Europe  (construction) 
Geography  of  Europe  (booklets)    . 
Review  of  Early  United  States  History 
Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition  . 
Colonial  Life  .         . 

Panama  Canal        .... 
A  Lumber  Camp    .... 
The  Rotation  and  Revolution  of  the  Earth 
The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  . 
Nature  Study  Books  on  Trees 
The  Evolution  of  Methods  of  Travel 
A  Study  of  Bridge  Building  . 
A  Coal  Mine  .... 

A  Circus  Parade    .... 


A  Planing  Mill 


VL    Teachers'  Report  with  Summary 
VI L     A  Compelling  Motive     . 
VIII.    Reference  List 


117 
125 
136 

140 

140 
144 

•45 
150 

155 
156 

159 
161 
166 
170 
173 

175 
177 

185 

191 

194 

198 

201 

215 

221 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


A  Lapland  Hut 

1 .  Scotland  —  Lady  of  the  Lake 

2.  Gold  Mining  in  California 

3.  Valley  Forge    .         ... 

4.  The  Bears'  House 

5.  The  Wooden  Horse  of  Troy 

6.  Development  of  Technical  Handwork 

7.  Proportionate   Emphasis   on    Unified   an 

Matter        .... 

8.  Early  Days  in  St.  Joseph 

9.  Robinson  Crusoe 

10.  Primitive  Homes  in  the  Philippines 

1 1 .  Primitive  Homes  —  Cliff  Dwellers 

12.  Primitive  Homes  —  Tree  Dwellers 

13.  The  .Sleeping  Beauty 

14.  Jack  and  the  Bean  Stalk  . 

15.  Cuban  Indu.stries 

16.  Geography  Posters,  Grades  Four  and  Fiv 

17.  History  Posters,  Grade  Seven  . 

18.  Hallowe'en  Posters.     Fifth  Grade 
Kj.    Booklets,  Sixth  Grade 
20.    Lincoln,  Life  Story  . 
2  r .    N'orman  Castle 

22.  Daniel  Boone  .... 

23.  Booklets  on  Cieography.     Seventh  (irad( 

24.  Stuflies  of  Birds.     Sixth  Grade 

25.  Snowbound       .... 

26.  Zinc  Mine  .... 

27.  Evolution  of  Travel  by  Land     . 

ix 


d    Differen 


tiated 


PAGE 

Frontispiece 

3 

7 

10 

14 

•7 
20 

22 

24 
28 
32 
11 

35 

39 
40 

43 
46 

48 

50 
53 

5« 

59 
61 

62 

64 

r/, 

68 

70 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


28.  Studies  in  Industrial  Evolution 

29.  People  of  All  Nations 

30.  Mechanical  Projects 

31.  Station,  Signal  Tower  and  Train 

32.  Well  Sweeps  and  Sundials 
2^-  Crane  Raising  a  Submarine 

34.  Derrick     ..... 

35.  Panama  Canal  .... 

36.  Colonial  House  (Front  view)    . 

37.  Colonial  House  (Back  view) 

38.  Booklets,  University  of  Missouri 

39.  Transportation  Studies —  Brushworl 

40.  Pose  Studies  —  Costumes 

41.  Statistical  Posters     . 

42.  Pose  Studies  • — Games 

43.  The  Battle  of  Quebec 

44.  Sawmill  and  Oil  Well 

45.  The  Landing  of  Columbus 

46.  Industries  in  Southern  States 

47.  A  Dog  of  Flanders   . 

48.  Venice  and  Rome     . 

49.  United  States  before  1850 

50.  A  Castle  on  the  Rhine 

51.  A  Dutch  Farm 

52.  Scenes  in  Italy 

53.  Swedish  Hay  Cart  and  Irish  Jaunting 

54.  Dolls  in  Costume 

55.  Holland's  Dykes 

56.  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition 

57.  Colonial  Home  Life 

58.  Another  Colonial  House  . 

59.  Panama  Canal  and  Locks 

60.  A  First  Attempt  at  Lock  Building 

61.  A  Lumber  Camp 

62.  A  Lumber  Camp  and  Sawmill 

63.  Apparatus  Illustrating  the  Earth's  M 

64.  Miles  Standish 

65.  Tree  Studies    . 


Car 


otions 


'74 
176 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


XI 


66. 


67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 

71- 

72. 


73- 
74- 

75- 
76. 

11- 
78. 

79- 
80. 

81. 

82. 

83- 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 
93- 


Transportation  by  Land : 

1.  Carrying  the  Burden     . 

2.  Single  Drag  .... 

3.  Double  Drag  or  Sled    . 

4.  Cart 

Transportation  by  Land  :  Schooner 
Transportation  by  Land  :  Travel  by  Steam 
Transportation  by  Land  :  Electric  Car 
Transportation  by  Land  :  Automobile 
Transportation  by  Land :  Airship     . 
Transportation  by  Water : 

1 .  On  a  Log      ..... 

2.  On  a  Hollow  Log 
Transportation  by  Water :  Canoe  and  Rowboat 
Transportation  by  Water  :  Greek  Galley 
Transportation  by  Water  :   Sailboat 
Transportation  by  Water :  Stern  Wheel  and  Horse 
Transportation  by  Water :  River  Steamboat 
Transportation  by  Water :  Battleship 
Transportation  by  Water  :  Ocean  Liner    . 
Transportation  by  Water :  Motor  Boat 
Primitive  Bridges.     Primary  Classes 
Bridges  of  Various  Types.     Seventh  Grade 
Suspension  Bridges.     .Seventh  Grade 
Suspension  Bridge.     Sixth  (irade 
Three  Bridges.     P'ifth  Grade    . 
Suspension  Bridge.     Sixth  Grade 
A  Coal  Mine.     Fifth  Cirade 
Dough  Maps  and  a  Circus  Parade 
Bunker  Hill  and  Hiawatha 
Ali  Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves 
Holland.     Dutch  Home  Life 
Booncsborough  Stockade 
The  Simple  Life 


Power 


178 
178 
178 
178 
179 
179 
180 
180 
180 

181 
181 
181 
182 
182 

183 
183 
184 
184 
185 
186 
188 
189 
190 
190 
191 
192 

'95 
203 

205 

209 

2 1 2 

217 


illustratht:  handaa^ork 

CHAPTER   I 

THE   POIXT  OF  VIEW 

INTRODUCTION 

The  point  of  view  is  always  important.  Many  of 
our  heated  and  futile  discussions,  many  of  our  mis- 
understandings and  estrangements,  are  due  to  the 
fact  that  two  of  us  have  seen  the  same  thing  from 
different  angles  and  each  has  pitied  or  blamed  the 
other  for  blindness  without  a])preciating  the  keen- 
ness of  his  observation.  Again,  many  of  our  en- 
deavors are  blocked  and  our  resources  seem  to  be 
exhausted  until  we  hap])en  upon  a  new  point  of  view 
which  oi)ens  uj)  a  new  mode  of  attack  or  another 
avenue  of  a])i)r()ach  and  we  are  able  to  move  forward 
with  vigor  and  success. 

Handwork  as  a  school  subject  is  so  new  that  its 
advocates  are  still  far  from  agreed  either  as  to  its 
subject  matter,  its  methods,  or  its  purpose.  Differ- 
ent grou{)s  in  turn  advocate  a  form  which  empha- 
sizes marketable  skill,  a  form  which  allows  free  rein 
to  originality  and  inventive  genius,  a  form  which  will 
produce  useful  articles  for  home  and  school,  a  ty]:)e 


2  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

which  deals  with  the  immediate  interests  of  children 
and  allows  them  "  to  make  what  they  want  to  make," 
and  so  on.  Reasonable  arguments  are  brought 
forward  in  support  of  each  of  these  legitimate  but 
conflicting  aims,  and  it  seems  impossible  to  meet 
all  these  needs  in  a  single  course  of  study.  Nowhere 
is  this  confusion  so  marked  as  in  the  elementary 
field,  and  nowhere  is  the  need  for  a  new  point  of 
attack  more  keenly  felt. 

Handwork  of  all  sorts  is  commonly  classed  as  a 
special  subject,  the  work  being  done  at  a  specified 
time  with  special  tools  and  material,  and  frequently 
in  a  different  room  under  a  specially  trained  teacher 
where  the  projects  undertaken  have  no  direct  rela- 
tion to  any  of  the  regular  classroom  work  of  the 
pupils.  This  point  of  view  is  the  inevitable  accom- 
paniment of  the  newness  of  the  subject,  but  as  we 
become  better  acquainted  with  the  value  and  possi- 
bilities of  the  work,  we  discover  the  narrowness  of 
this  view.  We  have  begun  to  realize  that  handwork 
is  valuable  not  only  for  its  product  in  things  made, 
but  also  for  the  effect  upon  the  maker ;  that  it  is  not 
only  a  subject  to  be  studied  for  its  own  sake,  but  may 
be  a  helpful  method  of  studying  other  subjects  ;  that 
it  is  not  only  an  end  in  itself,  but  that  it  is  also  a 
means  to  an  end. 

As  soon  as  we  accept  the  premise  that  handwork 
has  two  distinct  functions  in  the  curriculum,  many 
of  our  difficulties  in  organization  disappear.     If  we 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW 


accept  this  premise  frankly,  the  problem  at  once 
divides  itself  into  two  general  propositions:  First, 
the  handwork  which  is  general  in  its  application  and 
free  in  its  methods  without  emphasis  upon  technical 


1 

i  ^  Jl 

L^  ±,^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

f 

1 

1 

1 

ir'           "                   -i. 

« 

Fig.  1. — The  Lady  of  the  Lake.     Sandtablc  Illustration.     Sixth  Grade. 

Columbia,  Mo. 

processes ;  and  second,  that  which  is  sjiecific  and  re- 
stricted by  commonly  accepted  ])rofessional  ])ractice. 
The  conditions  involved  in  the  former  ty])e  of  work, 
which  seeks  to  develoj)  originality  and  inventive 
genius  through  free  expression,  are  radically  dilTerent 
from  the  conditions   involved    in   the  second   type, 


4  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

which  seeks  to  de\'elop  skill  and  accuracy  in  any  given 
process.  Both  types  of  work  are  essential  in  a  well 
rounded  course  of  study,  but  cannot  be  taught  by  the 
same  method  nor  at  the  same  time.  The  former  may 
be,  and  is  largely,  a  part  of  regular  classroom  experi- 
ence under  the  guidance  of  the  regular  teacher,  to 
be  used  chiefly  as  a  medium  of  expression  for  ideas 
gained  in  the  study  of  other  subjects.  The  latter 
deals  chiefly  with  technical  processes  and  the  con- 
ditions involved  in  carrying  them  out,  and  must 
always  remain  the  province  of  the  technically  trained 
teacher. 

The  projects  outlined  in  this  book  belong  wholly 
to  the  former  or  expressional  type  of  handwork  and 
are  further  limited  to  forms  of  work  which  are  illus- 
trative in  character  and  grow  out  of  the  regular  or 
traditional  subjects  in  the  curriculum. 

Much  of  the  material  here  used  is  drawn  from  a 
series  of  studies,  carried  out  in  the  public  schools  of 
Columbia,  Missouri.  These  studies  were  carried  on 
in  regular  classrooms  under  conditions  common  to 
the  average  public  school.  The  projects  grew  out 
of  the  subject  matter  prescribed  by  the  regular 
course  of  study  and  were  made  a  part  of  regular 
class  work. 

These  studies  were  undertaken  to  prove : 

(i)  That  illustrative  handwork  can  be  used 
profitably  as  a  method  of  study  by  gi\ang  the  children 
something  to  do  which  they  will  wish  to  do  but  which 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW  5 

cannot   be   done   successfully   without   a   practical 
knowledge  of  the  subject  matter  to  be  studied. 

(2)  That  illustrati\'e  handwork  can  be  used  prof- 
itably as  a  method  of  recitation  by  requiring  the 
children  to  make  something  which  they  cannot  make 
successfully  unless  they  have  gained  clear  and  defi- 
nite ideas  of  the  subject  which  has  been  studied. 

(3)  That  work  of  this  kind  not  only  has  a  place 
as  a  regular  form  of  study  and  recitation  but  that 
it  can  be  done  without  exceeding  the  limit  of  time 
allotted  to  the  subject. 

(4)  That  the  equipment  and  materials  needed 
are  easily  obtainable  in  any  school. 

(5)  That  work  of  this  kind  may  be  carried  on  in 
the  regular  classroom. 

(6)  That  such  methods  may  be  used  by  teachers 
who  have  not  been  trained  in  the  Manual  Arts. 

Illustrative  Handwork 

Scope  and  Justification.  —  In  carr}'ing  on  the 
studies  which  furnish  the  material  for  this  book, 
certain  educational  values,  more  or  less  generally 
accejitcd,  have  been  assumed  in  justification  and 
limitation  of  the  projects  undertaken. 

First,  it  is  assumed  that  var}'ing  mental  capacities 
demand  a  \'ariely  of  means  of  expression  sufficient 
to  allow  each  ( hild  to  express  himself  with  compara- 
tive ease  through  at  least  one  medium. 

In  a  large  jjroportion  of  schools  a  pupil's  progress 


6  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

is  measured  only  by  what  he  can  say  with  his  tongue 
or  pen,  utterly  disregarding  what  he  might  tell  with 
his  hands.  For  example,  in  any  given  class  there  is 
likely  to  be  at  least  one  who  talks  glibly  and  makes 
a  good  showing  in  oral  recitations  but  fails  utterly 
in  an  attempt  to  write  out  a  connected  statement 
of  the  same  topic.  There  is  apt  to  be  another  whose 
diffidence  makes  him  fail  in  an  attempt. to  talk  but 
who  can  express  himself  clearly  in  writing.  There 
is  likely  also  to  be  a  third  pupil  who  finds  himself 
at  a  loss  in  using  words,  either  oral  or  written,  but 
who  can  "  show  you  how  it  was  "  if  given  an  op- 
portunity to  handle  tangible  material.  When,  for 
example,  this  last-named  pui)il  has  made  a  clever 
representation  on  the  sand  table,  the  teacher  is  apt 
to  say  to  the  admiring  visitor,  "  Oh,  yes,  John  can 
do  such  things,  but  he  can't  do  anything  else,"  in 
a  tone  which  implies  that  John's  ability  to  express 
his  ideas  through  his  fingers  is  of  much  less  value 
than  Henry's  ability  to  talk  or  write.  In  life  outside 
of  school  we  place  a  premium  upon  ability  to  do,  and 
it  is  deeds  rather  than  words  which  succeed  in  the 
battle  of  life.  In  the  classroom  where  no  opportunity 
for  concrete  expression  is  offered,  the  child  of  the 
third  type  described  above  is  prone  to  become  dis- 
couraged and  to  regard  himself  as  such  a  hopeless 
dunce  that  extended  school  attendance  is  a  waste 
of  time.  If  he  succeeds  in  life  in  spite  of  a  scant 
amount  of  schoohng,  he  is  apt  to  join  the  ranks  of 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW  7 

those  who  oppose  all  higher  education.  It  is  a  good 
thing  for  such  a  pupil  sometimes  to  feel  a  thrill  of 
pride  in  having  surpassed  his  classmates  instead 
of  always  being  outstripped  by  them.  Such  an  ex- 
perience sometimes  helps  to  overcome  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  his  success  in  other  forms  of  expression. 
His  interest  in  the  thing  he  has  made  overcomes  his 


111..   J.        ( iulil  Milling  ill  ('ulifiirniii.      lil'lli  (ir.uli'.     (.'dlumliia,  Mn. 

By  means  of  a  small  lake  near  the  top  of  the  mountain  and  a  rubber  tube,  a  fair 
impression  of  placer  mining  was  given. 

diffidence,  and  he  tells  easil\-  how  the  work  was 
done  and  what  it  imj)lies.  It  is  also  a  good  thing 
for  all  the  class  to  feel  that  material  things  and 
the  control  of  them  have  value  as  well  as  has 
book-lore. 

PVom  any  ])oinl  of  \icw  it  seems  but  the  statement 
of  a  self-evident  truth  to  assume  that  the  school 
should  em[)loy  such  a  variety  of  mediums  of  e\])res- 
sion  that  each  i)U])il  could  use  at  least  one  of  tliem 
with  fair  success;   thus,  encouragement  is  given  him 


8  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

to  try  again,  and  the  process  of  finding  himself  is 
facilitated. 

It  is  assumed  also  that  concrete  illustration  is  an 
aid  to  clear  thinking,  first  to  the  worker,  in  that  he 
must  think  more  definitely  than  is  necessary  for  mere 
verbal  expression,  since  he  must  literally  "  give  shape 
to  his  thought  " ;  and  second,  to  the  observer,  in 
that  the  graphic  nature  of  the  illustration  brings  out 
relationships  more  vividly  and  conveys  a  greater 
sense  of  reality  than  is  possible  through  printed  de- 
scriptions only. 

Our  common  acceptance  of  this  point  of  view  is 
attested  by  the  increase  in  the  number  and  quality 
of  pictures  used  in  connection  with  all  forms  of 
printed  matter.  The  modern  architect  adds  to  the 
flat  plans  for  his  house,  a  cardboard  model  of  it ;  and 
to  impress  the  prospective  builder  still  more,  he 
models  the  contour  of  the  grounds  in  papier-mache 
and  gives  the  tiny  house  its  proper  setting.  At 
fairs  and  expositions  and  in  store  windows  such  rep- 
resentations always  attract  crowds  of  observers. 
If  these  illustrations  are  interesting  and  helpful  to 
adults,  they  are  even  more  helpful  to  children  in 
whom  the  power  of  abstraction  is  still  less  developed, 
and  the  school  should  eagerly  adopt  every  available 
means  to  simplify  and  intensify  the  educative  pro- 
cess. Mark  Twain,  in  an  article  entitled,  "  Making 
History  Dates  Stick,"  ^  sets  forth  in  his  own  delight- 

*  Harper's  Magazine,  December,  1914.     Vol.  cxxx,  p.  3. 


THE    POINT    or    VIEW  9 

ful  fashion  the  value  of  picture-making  as  an  aid 
to  memor}',  and  in  semi-serious  manner  emphasizes 
a  psychological  truth  in  his  repeated  and  italicized 
admonition,  "But  you  must  make  the  pictures 
yourself." 

In  the  third  place,  it  is  assumed  that  the  making 
of  concrete  illustrations  causes  the  student  to  read 
with  more  interest  and  earnestness  when  he  is  seeking 
information  for  which  he  has  immediate  use  than 
when  he  is  without  such  motive ;  and  that  informa- 
tion thus  gained  and  used  makes  a  more  lasting  im- 
pression than  would  otherwise  result. 

The  early  reading  of  children  is  concerned  so 
largely  with  the  master^'  of  technique,  with  mere 
ability  to  pronounce  w^ords,  that  it  is  important  to 
give  them,  as  early  as  possible,  a  motive  which  will 
em])hasize  the  thought  which  the  words  convey. 
The  child  who  is  trying  to  make  a  Jai)anesc  house,  a 
Dutch  windmill,  or  an  aeroplane,  turns  again  and 
again  to  the  printed  description  to  find  out  how  to 
complete  his  project,  and  he  must  read  intelligently 
and  think  clearly  before  he  can  reach  a  satisfying 
degree  of  success.  This  necessity  and  the  struggle 
to  meet  it  cannot  fail  to  make  a  more  lasting  impres- 
sion than  does  an  ordinary  (lass  recitation. 

It  is  assumed  in  the  fourth  place  that  the  necessity 
for  giving  tangible  expression  to  ideas,  combinefl 
with  interest  in  making  things  which  appeal  to  the 
worker    as    worth    while,    develoy^s    resourrefulncss, 


lO 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


/* 


both  in  use  of  materials  at  hand  and  in  the  search 
for  other  materials. 

One  common  criticism  of  our  modern  emphasis  up- 
on interest  as  a  factor  in  education  is  that  through  its 
use,  or  misuse,  we  have  made  school  work  so  easy  that 
children  balk  at  an  attack  upon  any  hard  problem. 


Fig.  3.  —  Valley  Forge.     Sixth  Grade.     Columbia,  Mo. 

If,  however,  the  project  is  one  in  which  the  pupil  is 
vitally  interested  because  it  is  on  the  level  of  his 
o\vn  experience  and  appeals  to  him  as  real  and  worth 
while,  there  seems  no  limit  to  the  energy  he  will  put 
forth  to  accomplish  success.  Various  materials  are 
turned  to  account  and  unexpected  values  are  dis- 
covered in  them  w^hich  give  to  the  worker  an  added 
feeling  of  power  and  not  only  encourage  him  to  ex- 
plore new  fields  in  search  of  material  with  which  to 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW  II 

perfect  his  project  but  also  make  him  alert  to  dis- 
cover the  various  uses  to  which  materials  may  be  put. 
Even  though  these  energies  may  be  directed  toward 
ends  which  have  small  \'alue  from  an  adult  or  com- 
mercial point  of  \'iew,  the}'  help  in  establishing  habits 
of  thought  and  action  which  have  broad  application 
and  carry  over  into  many  fields  of  activity. 

It  is  further  assumed  that  cooperative  effort  in 
interesting  work  tends  to  develop  a  spirit  of  mutual 
hel])fulness. 

In  '  the  ordinar\-  Iess(jn  each  pupil  is  concerned 
primarily  with  his  own  success.  In  group-projects, 
ultimate  success  depends  upon  cooi)eration  among 
the  workers.  Each  i)ui)il  feels  a  greater  responsibil- 
ity for  perf<jrming  his  ])art  well  when  other  parts  de- 
I)end  upon  it,  than  when  it  is  purely  an  individual 
matter.  Each  member  feels  a  responsibility  for  the 
group  and  he  is  anxious  to  help  the  weaker  members. 
The  occasional  delinquent  who  sees  in  the  group- 
project  a  chance  to  shirk  resj)()nsibility,  is  apt  to  be 
reproved  and  hel])ed  in  most  eUectivc  ways  by  his 
mates.  Actual  j)ractice  indicates,  however,  that  the 
shirkers  are  greatly  outnumbered  b\-  those  who  are 
ready  to  do  more  than  a  fair  share  of  ihe  work. 

Relation  between  Technical  and  Expressional 
Handwork.  If  we  include  in  the  term  technical 
handwork  all  ixojects  which  iiuoKc  technical  skill 
on  the  ])art  of  the  worker  and  whi(  h  (le])end  for  their 
success  ui)on  the  c[uality  of  workmanshij)  disi)layed, 


12  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

it  goes  without  saying  that  such  work  to  be  fully 
successful  requires  the  direction  of  a  skilled  teacher 
well  versed  in  the  technique  of  the  processes  he 
teaches.  It  is  also  self-evident  that  work  of  this  type 
demands  a  definite  time  at  which  the  pupil's  entire 
attention  shall  be  given  to  the  mastery  of  the  processes 
involved.  Such  work  presupposes  a  definite  project 
through  which  the  pupil  shall  be  taught  how  to  do  the 
work  in  the  best  and  most  economical  manner  as  de- 
termined by  professional  or  trade  practices,  and  in 
which  he  shall  be  held  to  as  high  a  standard  of  excel- 
lence in  workmanship  as  the  conditions  warrant. 

Work  of  this  sort  is  usually  organized  in  courses 
involving  a  certain  material  or  a  certain  set  of  tools, 
as  leather,  metal,  cardboard,  or  bench  work,  book- 
binding, coping  saw  work,  etc.  These  courses 
are  the  special  subjects  to  which  reference  has  been 
made  and  in  many  schools  are  the  only  forms  of 
handwork  in  use. 

A  recognition  of  other  values  to  be  gained  through 
the  use  of  handwork  in  no  way  belittles  the  value  of 
technical  training.  It  but  adds  another  tool  with 
which  to  make  the  teacher's  work  more  effective  and 
it  increases  the  usefulness  of  motor  activities.  It  is 
important,  however,  that  the  relationship  between 
these  values  be  clear  in  our  minds  and  that  each  be 
kept  in  its  legitimate  field.  Handwork  for  the  sake 
of  the  thing  to  be  made  is  one  thing.  Handwork  for 
the  sake  of  being  able  to  make,  i.e.  skill,  is  another. 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW  1 3 

Handwork  for  the  sake  of  the  personal  effect  upon 
the  worker  is  still  another,  and  is  always  important, 
if  not  the  most  important. 

WTien  skill  of  hand  is  the  purpose  in  view,  attention 
must  be  centered  in  the  actual  tool  processes  and  the 
thing  to  be  made  is  of  secondary  importance.  That 
is,  if  skill  in  planing  is  the  thing  desired,  it  does  not 
matter  greatly  whether  it  comes  through  making 
breadboards  or  hatracks,  but  it  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance that  the  worker  handle  his  plane  in  the  most 
effective  way.  It  is  not  only  important  to  obtain 
a  good  result,  but  it  should  be  gained  by  the  best 
means.  When,  however,  the  project  in  hand  is  an 
illustration  for  a  geography  lesson,  its  chief  purpose 
is  to  teach  the  geography  lesson  in  the  most  efficient 
and  effective  manner.  It  is  desired  onl}-  to  make 
certain  facts  and  conditions  stand  out  boldly  in  the 
pupil's  mind  and  to  deepen  the  impression  by  adding 
muscular  sensations  to  those  received  through  eye 
and  ear.  Under  sucli  conditions  the  technical  j^ro- 
cess  of  handwork  is  of  secondary  importance  and  the 
method  of  holding  saw  or  i)kine  may  be  i)assed  over 
that  attention  may  be  centered  in  ihc  general  effect 
to  be  secured. 

The  great  lousiness  of  lilllr  (  hildrt-n  is  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  world  ul)oul  tliem.  This  in- 
cludes a  general  knowledge  of  materials,  how  they 
behave,  what  j)urpo.sc'  ihey  will  serve,  and  how  they 
may  be  controlled.     It  seems   reasonable   therefore 


14 


ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 


that  the  handwork  for  the  lower  grades  should  deal 
with  a  variety  of  materials  with  which  children  may 
experiment  quite  freely  in  order  to  gain  lirst-hand 
experience  in  what  can  be  done  with  them. 


Fig.  4. — The  Bear's  House.    Training  Class.    Missouri  University. 

The  most  prominent  characteristic  of  little  chil- 
dren is  their  restless  activity  and  constant  desire  to 
be  doing  something.  The  successful  program  of 
education  must  recognize  this  activity  in  two  ways. 
First,  the  physical  necessity  for  activity  for  growing 
children  demands  an  organization  of  methods  which 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW  1 5 

will  provide  for  such  acti\ity  as  a  regular  part  of 
school  work  and  not  merely  as  rest  or  recreation. 
Second,  even  apart  from  the  appeal  to  the  interest, 
the  importance  and  value  of  learning  to  do  by  doing 
would  seem  to  warrant  greater  emphasis  than  is 
usual!}'  given  to  motor  expression  as  an  effective 
method  of  teaching. 

Little  children,  when  they  first  enter  school,  are 
unconscious  of  any  need  for  skill  and  are  therefore 
not  ready  for  technical  handwork.  The  desire  for 
skill  must  be  aroused  through  desire  for  a  thing  which 
requires  skill.  Whether  a  plant  label  is  five  inches 
long  or  misses  that  measurement  by  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  does  not  materiall}-  interfere  with  its  usefulness 
as  a  plant  label,  and  the  pujjil  is  inclined  to  attribute 
what  seems  to  be  an  arbitrary  demand  for  accuracy 
to  the  teacher's  general  fussiness.  A  spool  toj)  wliich 
will  not  si)in  because  the  stalk  is  too  long,  sets  its 
own  standard  of  accuracy  and  not  (jnly  creates  a  de- 
sire for  better  work  but  suggests  the  means.  Tt 
seems  reasonable  that  the  early  projects  in  handwork 
should  be  drawn  from  the  field  of  ilu-  ( Iiild's  imme- 
diate interests  and  should  deal  with  things  which  he 
wants  and  is  glad  to  put  forth  effort  to  secure,  ami 
which  at  the  same  time  will  be  unsatisfactory  to  him 
unless  they  are  fairly  well  made.  Such  i)rojects 
not  only  set  their  own  standards  of  excellence  but 
tend  to  establish  habits  of  success,  instead  of  failure. 

If  these  characteristics  of  rhildn-n  are  recognized 


1 6  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

in  the  organization  of  an  educative  program,  it 
follows  that  the  work  for  the  lowest  grades  must  per- 
mit the  maximum  amount  of  freedom  in  the  ma- 
nipulation of  a  great  variety  of  materials.  Courses 
in  raffia,  paper,  clay,  or  any  other  single  material  in 
which  empahsis  must  be  placed  upon  a  technical  pro- 
cess, cannot  fill  this  requirement,  since  they  offer 
scant  opportunity  for  free  experimentation.  Neither 
can  such  courses  be  justified  from  the  standpoint  of 
physical  activity,  since  most  of  the  work  may  or  must 
be  done  while  sitting  at  the  desk.  Still  less  can 
such  courses  be  justified  from  the  standpoint  of  free 
self-expression,  since  the  nature  of  the  work  usually 
demands  a  method  of  dictation  until  processes  are 
memorized. 

Such  courses,  when  offered  too  early,  develop  a 
habit  of  dependence  upon  the  teacher's  leadership 
and  a  tendency  to  wait  until  shown  how  to  do,  be- 
fore any  effort  is  put  forth.  This  attitude  is  very 
different  from  that  of  a  group  of  first-grade  children 
who,  on  being  shown  a  very  attractive  but  simply 
constructed  doll  house,  responded  with  "  Oh,  I  could 
make  a  chair  like  that !  I  could  make  a  table  like 
that  I  "  a  response  which  indicated  a  feeling  of  power 
and  an  expectation  of  success.  Such  a  habit  of 
mind  tends  to  accomplish  much  more  in  this  world 
than  the  opposing  attitude  of  waiting  for  the  author- 
ity of  a  leader  before  any  step  is  taken. 

To  meet  the  conditions  above  outlined,  nontechni- 


THE   POINT   OF    VIEW 


17 


cal  or  expressional  handwork  may  be  used  in  two 
ways.  First,  through  illustrations  of  various  sorts, 
an  idea  which  has  its  source  in  the  book  subject  is 
made  clearer  or  more  deeply  impressed  through  the 
making  of  an  illustration.  In  illustrative  work  the 
current  of  thought  Jloivs  from  the  book  subject  to  the 
hmidwork.  Second,  a 
project,  such  as  that 
of  building  a  store  or 
playhouse,  may  be 
undertaken  for  its 
own  sake.  The  pro- 
cess of  building  will 
necessarily  involve 
many  phases  of  work 
commonly  stucHed  as 
separate  subjects. 
The  parts  will  have 
to  be  measured  and 
number  i)r()blems  of 
a  practical  sort  will 
demand  solution.  Color  combinations  and  ])r()i)or- 
tions  will  call  into  use  all  the  worker's  good  taste, 
which  is  but  another  name  for  aj)i)lii'(l  art.  Inter- 
esting points  will  arouse  curiosity  and  a  dcsirr  for 
further  knowledge  which  is  to  be  found  in  hooks. 
The  books  will  then  be  read  with  a  real  motive. 
Discussions  will  arise  over  many  topics,  causing  each 
contestant  to  defend  his  position  in  tlie  most  force- 
c 


I'lt;.  ^.-    Tlio  Wooden  Uorsr  in  llu-  Sirj,'c- o( 
Troy.     Third  CJradi;  Uoy.     St.  Jos<-ph,  Mo. 


1 8  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

ful  English  he  can  employ,  and  he  then  has  "  some- 
thing to  say  "  instead  of  "  having  to  say  something." 
In  this  second  type  of  expressional  work,  which  for 
want  of  a  better  term  we  may  call  representative,  the 
current  of  thought  flows  from  the  handwork  toward  the 
subject  matter  which  develops  incidentally  but  none 
the  less  vitally. 

The  early  school  years  belong  to  the  period  in 
which,  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Dewey,  a  "  child's  world 
is  fluid  and  fluent."  He  lives  in  a  world  of  imagina- 
tion in  which  the  real  and  the  unreal  are  so  inextri- 
cably tied  up  together  that  he  cannot  make  distinc- 
tions. The  Three  Bears  may  be  as  real  to  him  as  the 
members  of  his  family.  This  would  indicate  that  a 
large  part  of  the  handwork  in  the  lower  grades 
should  consist  in  the  working  out  of  representative 
projects  such  as  homes  for  storybook  friends,  and 
make-believes  of  all  sorts.  If  these  free  representa- 
tions are  carried  on  extensively,  situations  begin  to 
arise  in  which  the  pupils  feel  their  lack  of  control  over 
the  tools  and  materials  they  use.  They  begin  to 
wish  they  knew  how  to  build  a  better  house,  or  weave 
a  better  rug,  or  make  prettier  curtains.  They  are 
then  ready  for  suggestions  and  instruction  of  a 
technical  sort.  Representative  problems,  therefore, 
form  a  very  proper  preparation  for,  and  introduction 
to,  technical  handwork  in  various  materials,  in  that 
they  give  to  the  pupil  a  first-hand  experience  with 
many  materials  and  a  few  simple  tools.     This  experi- 


THE    POINT   OF    VIEW  1 9 

ence  generally  awakens  a  desire  for  further  knowl- 
edge and  skill,  and  supplies  the  motive  for  technical 
work.  While  work  of  this  sort  belongs  chiefly  to 
the  lower  grades,  a  housebuilding  project  is  capable 
of  such  varied  interpretation  that  it  develops  from 
a  mere  playhouse  in  the  lower  grades  to  a  study 
in  house  decoration  in  the  upper  grades.  This  and 
similar  problems  are  worthy  of  frequent  repetition 
from  a  different  \de\\q3oint. 

These  representative  problems,  which  may  serve 
as  a  motive  for  many  forms  of  traditional  subject 
matter,  might  legitimately  be  treated  in  a  discussion 
of  illustrative  handwork.  Being  especially  suited 
to  the  work  of  the  lower  grades,  detailed  suggestions 
have  already  been  offered  in  the  author's  book  on 
Primary  Handwork,  and  only  such  reference  is  made 
to  them  here  as  is  necessary  to  establish  the  desired 
point  of  view.  The  outlines  here  olTered  are  con- 
fined to  illustrative  ])roblems  which  are  based  upon 
the  traditional  subjects  as  commonly  found  in 
courses  of  study.  It  is  h()i)e(l  that  their  use,  whicli  is 
growing  in  po])ular  favor,  will  not  only  {nV\  interest 
and  force  to  the  traditional  subjects  as  commonly 
taught,  but  will  also  make  more  ex'ident  certain  glar- 
ing defects  in  our  j)resent  methods  and  hcl])  to  eradi- 
cate them.  Among  these  latter  might  be  mentioned 
the  overcrowding  of  (lasses,  the  lack  of  a(li\il\', 
the  inadequate  cfiuipmcnl  of  many  schools,  and  the 
retention  of  obsolete  subject  matter. 


20 


ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 


If  the  principles  here  outhned  are  accepted  as  a 
basis  for  organization,  the  relation  between  technical 
and  expressional  work  might  be  represented  by  the 
accompanying  diagram.  The  free  work  would  re- 
ceive the  major  emphasis  in  the  beginning,  gradually 
gi\'ing  way  to  the  desire  for  greater  technical  con- 


FiG.  6.  —  DevL'lopment  of  Technical  Handwork. 

This  diagram  is  intended  to  suggest  the  relatively  large  use  of  free  expressional  hand- 
work in  the  lower  grades  as  compared  with  Uie  emphasis  on  technical  handwork  in  the 
upper  grades.  As  ability  to  visualize  and  to  think  abstractly  develops,  the  need  for 
illustrative  projects  decreases.  .At  the  same  time  a  developing  consciousness  of  definite 
needs  demands  increasing  emphasis  upon  the  various  technical  processes  of  handwork. 

trol.  The  emphasis  on  technical  processes  would 
be  very  slight  at  first,  gradually  increasing  with 
progress  through  the  grades.  This  enlarging  em- 
phasis upon  technical  processes  would  naturally  deal 
with  definite  phases  of  work  ;  therefore,  the  technical 
wedge  in  the  diagram  must  be  divided  longitudinally 
to  indicate  the  various  subjects  which  would  arise 
out  of  the  earlier  use  of  expressional  methods  and  a 
largely  unified  curriculum.     The  grouping  of  subjects 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW  21 

in  the  technical  wedge  is  suggestive  only,  sufficient 
data  upon  which  to  base  definite  conclusions  not  be- 
ing available. 

Illustrative  handwork  has  a  place  all  through  the 
grades,  not  only  as  a  means  of  expression  but  also 
as  a  means  of  impression.  Often  a  rough  model,  a 
quickly  constructed  sand  table  project  or  a  striking 
poster  will  convey  more  at  a  glance  and  make  a  more 
lasting  impression  than  can  be  gained  from  pages  of 
reading  or  lengthy  verbal  descriptions.  If  this  is 
true,  it  follows  that  graphic  expression  should  be 
accepted  as  a  regular  form  of  study  and  recitation 
and  be  recognized  as  having  a  value  comi)arable 
with  talking  and  writing.  While  the  field  of  techni- 
cal handwork  must  always  belong  to  the  technically 
trained  teacher,  illustrative  work,  being  but  a  method 
of  teaching,  is  the  ])rovince  of  the  classroom  teacher. 
While  nontechnical  work  may  be  carried  on  with  con- 
siderable success  by  any  resourceful  teacher,  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  expect  better  results  from  those  who  have 
been  trained  with  this  j)oint  of  \\vw.  In  lime,  such 
methods  must  become  as  nuK  h  a  juirt  of  ihc  lr;iiniiig 
of  a  classror)m  teacher  as  is  training  in  mclhods  of 
teaching  arithmetic  or  music.  Until  such  training  is 
generally  given,  the  untrained  teacher  is  not  likely 
to  experience  any  more  difficulty  in  the  use  of  illustra- 
tive handwork  than  she  now  cncounlers  in  teaching 
music,  art,  j)hysical  (ullure,  or  an\-  of  the  modern 
additions  to  the  traditional  curri(  ulum. 


22 


ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 


Handwork  in  Relation  to  General  Subject  Matter. 
—  The  question  is  frequently  asked,  "How  much 
time  should  be  given  to  handwork?  "  and  in  answer 
the  accompanying  diagram  suggests  the  large  use  of 
free  expression  through  games  and  plays  as  the  proper 
introduction  to  school  work.     In  the  lower  grades, 


7.  —  Proportionate  Emphasis  on  Unified  and  Differentiated  Subject  Matter. 

This  diagram  is  intended  to  suggest  the  relative  proportion  of  emphasis  in  the  upper 
grades  upon  well  defined  subjects,  as  compared  with  the  comprehensive  projects  of  the 
lower  grades  out  of  which  these  subjects  arise  incidentally  and  develop  naturally. 

while  the  child's  appreciation  of  differences  is  slight, 
a  largely  unified  method  of  organization  meets  his 
needs  and  representative  projects  may  be  used  almost 
exclusively.  But  very  soon  the  desire  to  make 
better  pictures,  to  read  interesting  stories,  to  write 
real  letters,  to  measure  with  ease,  creates  a  feel- 
ing of  need  for  power  to  control  these  values  and 
a  consequent  eagerness  to  be  taught  the  tricks  of  the 
trade.  Meeting  these  specific  needs  will  gradually 
change  the  unity  of  primary  work  into  the  differen- 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW  23 

tiated  curriculum  of  the  upper  grades  ^^^th  technical 
handwork  as  one  of  the  subjects  to  be  studied. 

Illustrative  handwork  is  in  no  way  a  substitute  for 
technical  work,  though  representative  problems  serve 
as  a  desirable  introduction  to,  and  motive  for,  techni- 
cal processes.  Illustrati\'e  handwork  must  be  re- 
garded chiefly  as  a  method  of  teaching  traditional 
subjects.  The  time  to  be  devoted  to  it  de]:)ends  upon 
its  \'alue  as  a  method.  As  the  power  of  visualization 
and  abstract  thinking  increases,  the  need  for  concrete 
illustration  decreases ;  therefore,  illustrative  hand- 
work though  still  heli)ful  on  occasion,  may  receive 
correspondingly  less  emphasis  in  the  up])er  grades. 

In  many  schools  unable  to  alTord  equii)ment  for 
technical  work,  no  ])r()\'isi()n  is  made  for  handwork 
of  any  sort,  the  entire  lime  being  apportioned  to  the 
various  traditional  subjects.  In  such  instances  the 
use  of  illustrative  methods  offers  a  means  of  introduc- 
ing some  activity  into  tlie  daily  ])r()gram  and  giving 
some  acquaintance  with  handwork  processes  and 
materials  without  interfering  with  I  he  time  schedule. 
Used  as  a  method  of  teaching  ge()gra|)h\-,  for  exam])le, 
the  work  may  legitimately  be  done  in  the  time 
allotted  to  that  subject.  In  carrying  out  the  exjieri- 
mental  ])rojects  outlined  below,  especial  attention 
was  j)aid  to  the  amount  of  lime  needecj  for  illustra- 
tive work.  A  study  of  these  |)rojects  will  show  that 
practically  no  extra  time  was  required,  because  of  the 
method  used. 


24 


ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 


It  may  be  confulently  assumed,  in  view  of  these 
facts,  that  handwork  and  other  activities  may  and 
should  receive  a  much  larger  proportion  of  emphasis 
in  the  grades  than  we  are  accustomed  to  give  them. 


-  Early  Days  in  St.  Joseph,  Mo.     Fourth  Oracle. 


If  the  physical  and  mental  needs  of  the  children  in 
the  lower  grades  were  adequately  met,  then  in  the 
proportioning  of  work,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  rep- 
resentative problems  such  as  playhouses  and  play- 
stores,  together  with  illustrative  methods  including 


THE    POINT   OF    VIEW  25 

dramatization  as  well  as  handwork,  would  occupy  a 
ver>'  large  proportion  of  time.  This  emphasis  would 
gradualh'  decrease,  giving  place  to  technical  instruc- 
tion in  different  phases  of  work  as  these  become  prom- 
inent in  the  child's  mind  and  a  feeling  of  need  for 
them  arises.  Thus,  the  building  of  a  playhouse  \vill 
prepare  for  and  lead  to  the  study  of  numbers,  lan- 
guage, and  art,  with  their  many  subdivisions,  and 
to  a  technical  study  of  tool  processes.  The  making 
of  posters  and  booklets  will  prepare  for  and  lead  to 
the  making  of  regularly  bound,  well  written  and  illus- 
trated books  in  the  upi)er  grades.  And,  further, 
the  use  of  illustrative  methods  in  the  study  of  these 
subjects  would  serve  as  the  connecting  link  between 
the  unity  and  freedom  of  the  earl\-  work  and  the  more 
technical  and  differentiated  courses  of  the  middle 
and  u])per  grades. 

Illustrative  Handwork  and  Expense.  In  \ic\v  of 
the  ever-present  f[uesti()n  of  cost,  tliis  discussion 
would  be  incomi)letc'  witlioul  a  word  upon  exj)ense. 
The  necessity  for  special  ef|uii)menl  and  tools  which 
is  incidental  to  the  introdiK  lion  of  all  forms  of  tech- 
nical handwork,  is  almost  absent  in  the  introduction 
of  illuslrati\c  Handwork.  In  this  instance,  the 
pui)il  is  cxpecte<l  to  express  his  ideas  to  the  best  of 
his  ability  with  the  materials  at  liand.  Tlic  \alue 
of  his  work  dei)enfls  f|uite  as  much  u])(m  hmv  he  uses 
what  he  has  and  can  find  to  work  with,  as  it  does 
uj)on    ivlial    he    produces.     X'arying    resources    will 


26  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

produce  varying  results,  but  purposeful  effort  is 
sure  to  develop  resourcefulness  and  independence 
of  thought  and  action,  qualities  highly  desirable 
in  our  democratic  civilization.  The  use  of  illustra- 
tive methods,  though  begun  with  little  or  no  equip- 
ment, will  generally  lead  to  the  discovery  of  ways 
and  means  for  securing  what  is  found  essential,  and 
in  due  time  open  the  way  for  the  establishment  of 
technical  courses  in  schools  not  having  such  work. 

Free  Expression  and  Classroom  Discipline.  —  To 
many  teachers,  good  order  still  means  a  quiet  room 
in  which  the  pupils  never  speak  or  leave  their  seats 
without  permission,  where  military  discipline  main- 
tains in  the  conduct  of  classes  to  and  from  recitations 
as  well  as  in  and  out  of  the  room.  This  method 
seemed  to  have  reached  its  limit  in  the  case  of  a  rural 
teacher  who  tapped  his  bell  and  gave  the  com- 
mands, "  Class  in  History,  Turn,  Rise,  Pass,  Halt, 
Dress  the  Line  " ;  all  of  which  one  lone  pupil  did 
his  best  to  obey.  To  many  teachers,  the  idea  of  an 
unprejudiced  democratic  standard  of  equality  is 
interpreted  as  identity  rather  than  as  equality  of  op- 
portunity, and  no  exercise  is  acceptable  which  does  not 
allow  or  require  all  members  of  the  class  to  be  engaged 
upon  the  same  sort  of  work  at  the  same  moment. 
To  teachers  having  such  ideals,  the  suggestion  of  free 
expression  is  confused  with  the  Bedlam-let-loose 
type  of  disorder  they  sometimes  find  in  their  rooms 
when  restraints  are  removed,  and  it  seems  impossible 


THE   POINT    OF    VIEW  27 

for  them  to  conceive  of  a  happy  medium  between  the 
two  extremes.  The  emphasis  placed  by  the  author 
upon  the  need  of  opportunity  for  self-expression, 
and  the  need  of  throwing  pupils  upon  their  own 
responsibility,  is  in  no  way  intended  to  suggest  that 
the  teacher  is  to  let  the  pupils  do  as  they  please  and 
accept  any  sort  of  work  because  it  was  done  inde- 
pendently. 

It  takes  more  teaching  and  better  teachers  to  con- 
duct work  of  the  tN-pe  outlined  in  this  book  than  for 
the  ordinary  stud}'  and  recitation  method.  It  takes 
greater  teaching  ability  to  guide  and  lead  a  small 
group  of  children  who  are  free  to  act  upon  their  own 
impulses,  even  within  limits,  than  it  does  to  control 
a  larger  group  b\-  mechanical  methods.  It  is  believed, 
however,  that  freedom  of  method  is  possible  even  with 
large  groui)s  and  that  the  results  justify  its  wise  use. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  changing  from  me- 
chanical to  free  methods  arc  chiefly  in  the  mind  of 
the  teacher.  She  must  first  convince  herself  that 
more  good  is  to  come  to  the  \)u\n\  through  learning 
to  guide  his  own  actions  wisely,  than  through  unfjues- 
tioned  obedience  to  authority  at  all  times.  She  must 
convince  herself  that  a  busy  hum  is  not  disorder 
in  a  schoolroom  where  work  is  being  done,  any  more 
than  it  is  disorder  in  a  factory  where  machines  are 
at  work.  Hut  she  must  learn  to  distinguish  between 
the  busy  hum  of  a  smoothly  running  machine  and  the 
squeak  of  one  that  needs  attention.     The  .school  as 


28 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


a  workshop  is  not  al- 
ways a  quiet  place, 
but  many  kinds  of 
noise  are  like  the 
squeaking  of  machin- 
ery and  call  for  im- 
mediate attention 
from  the  masterwork- 
man.  The  quiet 
schoolroom,  on  the 
other  hand,  may  be 
sometimes  akin  to  the 
quiet  of  the  cemetery 
and  produce  no  re- 
sults. 

Having  once  be- 
come convinced  of 
the  value  and  need 
of  freedom  in  school 
methods,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  introduce 
changes  wisely.  Any 
sudden  or  wholesale 
revolution  is  apt  to  be 
disastrous  to  the  best 
interest  of  all  con- 
cerned. Sandtable 
work,  for  example, 
will  be  a  distracting 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW  29 

influence  when  introduced  unless  it  is  managed 
wisely.  One  of  two  methods  may  be  used,  accord- 
ing to  conditions.  A  few  trusty  pupils  may  be 
allowed  to  work  out,  quite  independent!}',  some 
attractive  project.  Rightly  managed,  this  mil  in- 
spire others  to  try  to  be  worthy  of  a  like  pri\'i- 
lege.  The  withdrawal  of  the  privilege  is  generally 
adequate  punishment  for  those  who  abuse  it.  Tn 
some  schools,  however,  the  children  are  so  accus- 
tomed to  leaning  upon  the  teacher's  planning,  and  the 
teacher  is  so  accustomed  to  directing  every  minute 
detail,  that  neither  would  be  comfortable  if  another 
ideal  were  suddenly  im])()sc(I.  In  such  a  case,  if  the 
teacher  will  select  a  project  with  which  her  best  i)U])ils 
are  more  familiar  concerning  details  than  she  is  her- 
self, it  will  be  possible  for  them  to  phm  together. 
The  children  will  ha\e  real  suggestions  to  offer  and 
will  begin  to  think  and  act  independently.  One 
teacher  who  tried  this  method  was  surj)rised  to  find 
her  best  work  in  the  subjects  so  treated. 

In  the  making  of  j)osters  and  booklets  it  will  l)e 
hard  for  the  teacher  described  above  to  accej)t  some 
results  of  her  |)ui)ils'  efforts  when  they  are  not  uj)  to 
her  own  standard,  even  if  the  (hildrcn  have  done 
their  best.  She  will  want  to  keej)  the  |)Ui)il  afti-r  class 
to  do  the  work  over,  or  will  cNcn  add  a  few  idling 
strokes  of  her  own  |)en(il  to  bring  out  llic  picture, 
to  show  the  i)Upil  how  it  should  look.  She  will  want 
to  refu.se  to  let  a  i)Ui)il  use  a  crude  color  that  to  his 


30  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

untrained  eye  is  most  beautiful,  because  it  will  spoil 
the  effect  of  her  exhibit.  She  will  measure  her 
success  in  terms  of  the  booklets  and  posters  which 
she  calls  the  results,  and  will  regard  the  imperfections 
of  any  of  them  more  as  a  reflection  upon  her  ability 
to  teach  than  as  an  indication  of  lack  of  capacity  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil.  Having  such  a  point  of  view, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  she  yields  to  the  temptation 
to  "  touch  up  "  the  work  of  her  pupils,  particularly 
if  it  is  to  be  inspected  by  those  in  authority  or  offered 
for  comparison  with  the  work  of  other  teachers. 
Wlien  we  become  more  concerned  for  the  real  devel- 
opment of  the  children  than  we  are  about  praise  for 
our  apparent  results,  we  will  realize  that  our  efforts 
are  vain  unless  we  can  so  teach  that  our  pupils  will 
appreciate  and  desire  the  better  things.  Anything 
less  than  this  can  never  be  real  success. 

Many  teachers  work  upon  the  theory  that  if  i)upils 
are  required  to  act  in  a  certain  way  or  to  conform  to 
certain  standards  until  a  habit  is  formed,  they  will 
come  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  the  process  and  use 
it  willingly  when  restraint  is  removed.  Probably 
every  teacher  who  reads  these  words  will  be  able  to 
recall  disappointing  instances  which  will  ])rove  the 
weakness  of  such  a  theory.  The  story  of  the  boy 
who,  wishing  to  give  his  art  teacher  a  present  she 
would  enjoy,  chose  "  the  ugliest  picture  they  had  " 
is  a  true  story,  not  only  in  the  original  but  in  many 
similar  instances  in  which  the  teacher  rejoiced  in 


THE    POINT   OF    VIEW  3 1 

empty  results.  At  best  the  successful  operation  of 
such  a  theory  can  produce  but  a  superficial  veneer 
in  lieu  of  real  culture  and  will  only  add  to  the  lists 
of  those  who  know  the  names  of  all  the  great  artists, 
can  tell  the  names  and  market  value  of  the  great 
masterpieces,  yet  who  never  feel  a  thrill  over  a  sun- 
set or  notice  a  beautiful  rose,  and  whose  back  yards 
are  far  from  being  gardens. 

Many  teachers  who  pride  themselves  upon  their 
discipline  and  ability  to  control  their  pupils  by  sheer 
force  of  will,  look  askance  upon  the  enthusiastic  be- 
liever in  free  self-expression  and  feel  sure  that  all  such 
liberty  is  but  license  due  to  the  teacher's  lack  of  power. 
The  words  "  must  "  and  "  ought  "  are  so  prominent 
in  their  vocabulary  that  they  cannot  imagine  the 
school  program  moving  cheerfully  along  by  the  force 
of  compelling  motivTS  which  are  to  be  found  in  the 
work  itself.  Wlien  the}'  find  a  class  of  genuinely 
happy  and  joyous  children  the\'  imagine  it  is  because 
the  teacher  is  entertaining  them  instead  of  teaching 
them. 

Normal,  healthy  children  are  brimful  of  joyous 
energy  which  will  find  its  outlet  somewhere.  If  it  is 
sup])ressed  by  stern  disci] )line  which  ex|)resscs  it.self 
in  a  long  list  of  "  <lon'ts,"  it  will  bubble  out  in  ])r;inks 
whenever  restraint  is  remcnid.  Tn  such  a  school 
the  casual  visitor  sees  all  sorts  of  fun  going  on  when 
the  teacher's  back  is  turned.  If  such  a  teacher  can 
persuade  herself  to  aflopt  a  new  point  of  view,  this 


32 


ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 


o 

IS 
£ 

U 


-a 

rt 


£1 


boundless  energy  of  the 
children  can  be  turned 
to  profitable  account  in 
regular  school  work.  If 
she  can  offer  to  them 
work  which  appeals  to 
them  as  attractive  and 
worth  while,  they  will 
soon  be  so  busily  engaged 
upon  it  that  discii)line 
will  take  care  of  itself. 

Criticism  and  Growth. 
—  If  real  growth  is  to  be 
secured  it  must  be  based 
upon  the  child's  independ- 
ent efforts.  The  meas- 
ure of  his  development 
must  always  be  what  he 
can  do  by  himself.  The 
success  of  his  unaided 
efforts  will  depend  to  a 
large  extent  upon  the 
ideal  toward  which  he 
works.  It  is  of  vast  im- 
portance, then,  that  right 
ideals  be  securely  estab- 
lished. Appreciation  is  a 
matter  of  development, 
often  very  slowly  accom- 


THE   POINT   OF    VIEW 


33 


plished  and  often  hindered  by  the  use  of  arbitrary 
standards  of  excellence.  In  many  instances  a  child 
rejoices  over  a  high  grade,  or  weeps  over  a  low  one, 
without  knowing  wherein  he  has  failed  or  succeeded. 

Class  criticism  of  class  work  offers  an  excellent 
means  of  developing  right  standards  of  aj^j^reciation. 
WTien  any  piece  of  work  has  been  finished,  the  entire 
class  should  sit  in 
judgment  upon  it. 
The  wise  teacher 
will  be  careful  about 
expressing  her  own 
opinions,  lest  they 
be  adoj^ted  by  lazy- 
minded  pupils  who 
do  not  want  to  think 
for  themselves,  or 
by  those  who  con- 
sciously or  uncon- 
sciously wish  to  gain 
favor. 

In  c(jn(lui  ting  class  criticism  llu  rhlMivn  should 
first  point  out  the  things  they  like.  This  will  gi\e 
the  teacher  a  chance  to  study  tiic  ({ualily  of  their 
appreciation  anrl  will  indicate  where  she  should 
place  the  emphasis  in  her  leaching.  1 1  will  also  fore- 
stall any  tendency  to  laugh  at  mistakes  or  lo  say 
spiteful  things.  Their  attention  may  then  be 
directe<l  to  some  one  or  two  ])roniiiunl  defects  and 


I'k;.  1 1.-- Cliff  Dwi-lliTs  —  Primitive  Homes. 
Sixth  (Irailc.     JcfTcrson  City,  Mo. 


34  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

possible  means  of  improvement.  In  the  next  at- 
tempt they  should  look  to  see  if  these  defects  are  less 
marked  than  in  the  first  effort.  One  by  one  the 
various  elements  which  make  for  success  should 
be  brought  into  the  focus  of  attention  and  studied 
until  the  children  know  how  those  elements  should  be 
treated.  Such  a  course  will  bring  about  a  marked 
improvement  in  the  quality  of  work  and  an  intelligent 
appreciation  of  the  means  of  success. 

It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  attempt  to  correct  many 
errors  or  all  the  mistakes  in  one  piece  of  work.  Many 
teachers  burn  midnight  oil  blue-penciling  every  mis- 
placed capital,  period,  and  comma  in  composition 
work,  and  all  the  pupil  sees  when  the  paper  is  re- 
turned is  that  he  has  passed  or  has  failed.  When 
he  is  required  to  do  the  work  over,  his  mind  is  apt 
to  be  a  jumble  of  vague  ideas  through  attempting 
too  much,  and  his  next  effort  shows  little  improve- 
ment. 

The  development  of  appreciation  cannot  be 
hurried,  and  the  teacher  must  be  willing  to  make 
haste  slowly.  It  is  a  question  of  individual  likes  and 
dislikes.  The  liking  for  the  crude  thing  may  be 
deepened  by  being  forced  to  yield  to  what  the 
teacher  likes.  The  wise  teacher  will  study  these 
likes  and  dislikes  of  her  pupils  and  try  to  lift  their 
taste  to  a  higher  level  by  making  the  better  things 
more  attractive,  irresistibly  attractive.  She  will 
measure  her  real  progress  by  the  standard  of  what 


THE    POINT    OF    VIEW 


35 


her  pupils  like  and  want  to  do  when  left  to  them- 
selves. 

How  shall  we  grade  our  success  in  picture  study  if 
we  measure  ourselves  by  the  power  of  the  "  funny 


page 
paper 


in    the  news- 
How    shall 


we  grade  our  teach- 
ing of  literature  when 
the  masterpieces 
studied  in  school  are 
thrown  aside  for  the 
cheap  no\X'l  ?  How 
shall  we  grade  the 
results  of  our  disci- 
pline when  our  pupils 
transfer  their  alle- 
giance to  our  author- 
ity in  school  to  that 
of  the  ward  boss  in 
politics? 

"  There  can  Ix-  no 
teaching  where  there 
is  no  learning,"  says 
iJr.  Dewey,  "  any 
more  than  there  can 
be  buying  without  selling."  It"  ((hKaliDii  is  that 
which  changes  us,  we  must  be  able  to  |)()int  to  real 
changes  in  our  j)U|)ils  or  admit  that  in  all  our  elTorts 
we  have  not  IdUj^/it. 


Vie.  12. — Trri- Dwellers      Primitive  I lomes. 
Jefferson  City,  Mo. 


36  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Some  of  our  educational  practices  have  been  based 
upon  a  theory  that  education  is  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge.  We  have  assumed  that  the  child's  mind 
is  a  clean,  blank  paper,  whereon  we  may  write  what 
we  will.  Or,  to  change  the  figure,  in  classroom  prac- 
tice we  seem  to  have  assumed  that  the  child's  mind  is 
an  empty  cupboard  full  of  many  small  compartments 
and  that  the  teacher's  business  is  to  supply  him  with 
numerous  facts  which  he  is  to  store  away,  all  properly 
labeled  for  use.  We  have  bidden  him  store  away  the 
fact  that  seven  times  seven  equals  forty-nine  with 
great  care  against  the  future  time  when  a  need  for 
it  will  arise.  We  have  drilled  and  drilled  to  be  sure 
these  facts  were  all  properly  labeled  and  in  the  right 
pigeonhole.  But  alas,  facts  fall  out  of  memory  as 
do  papers  out  of  pigeonholes  and  sometimes  in  re- 
turning them  the  labels  are  lost  or  we  put  them  back 
in  the  wTong  place.  And  so  it  comes  about  that 
"  seven  times  seven  equals  forty-nine,"  gets  mixed 
up  with  "  six  times  eight  equals  forty-eight,"  and 
trouble  follows. 

This  conception  of  the  child  mind,  useful  and 
truthful  as  it  may  be  within  limitations,  fails  to  take 
into  account  the  lively,  dynamic  nature  of  children. 
Another  and  better  conception  is  that  which  likens 
the  child  to  a  growing  plant  and  the  school  to  a  child- 
garden,  in  Froebel's  beautiful  ideal.  With  such  a 
point  of  view  the  teacher,  while  not  unmindful  of  the 
importance  of  facts,  is  still  more  deeply  concerned 


THE   POINT   OF    VIEW  37 

with  the  growth  of  the  child,  a  process  which  devel- 
ops from  within  outward,  and  not  by  external  addi- 
tions. She  watches  and  tends  each  bud  of  promise 
that  it  may  come  to  full  bloom.  She  strives  to  supply 
the  best  conditions  to  stimulate  a  natural  growth. 
She  protects  from  harmful  influences  and  sometimes 
uses  the  pruning  shears. 

Instead  of  plapng  the  pompous  role  of  dispenser 
of  facts,  inspiring  awe  that  one  small  head  can  carry 
all  she  knows,  she  works  in  the  humble  role  of  gar- 
dener. She  does  her  part  with  wisdom  and  care,  but 
knows  the  growth  must  come  from  within  and  that 
she  must  wait  with  })atience  for  the  often  slow  pro- 
cesses of  nature  to  bring  her  work  to  perfection. 

She  realizes  that  all  the  plants  in  her  garden  are 
not  of  like  \'ariety  nor  of  equal  strength  ;  therefore, 
she  watches  the  development  of  each  with  individual 
interest  and  personal  care,  in  the  hoi)e  that  she  may 
develop  the  best  in  each  one  to  its  fullest  value. 


4  o^r^^. 


CHAPTER   II 

VARIOUS   FORMS   OF  ILLUSTRATION 

Four  general  types  of  illustration  are  included  in 
the  suggestions  outlined  in  the  following  pages: 
posters,  illustrated  booklets,  sandtable  representa- 
tions, and  illustrative  constructions,  including  models 
and  miniatures. 

Posters 

The  term  "poster"  as  here  used  implies  any  pic- 
ture which  attempts  to  bring  out  in  a  graphic  way 
some  particular  idea.  They  may  well  be  called 
"descriptions  without  words."  As  the  advertiser 
strives  to  catch  the  eye  of  the  passer-by  and  impress 
an  idea  at  a  glance,  so  the  pupil  attempts  through 
the  poster  to  express  his  idea  so  clearly  that  "he 
who  runs  may  read."  Such  pictures  may  be  the 
individual  productions  of  the  various  members  of  a 
class  or  they  may  be  the  combined  efforts  of  a  group. 
They  may  be  made  in  several  ways.  They  may  be 
freehand  sketches,  either  drawn  or  painted.  They 
may  be  made  up  from  freehand  cuttings  and  take 
the  form  of  a  silhouette.  They  may  be  collections 
of  pictures  cut  from  old  papers  and  magazines  and 

38 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    ILLUSTRATION 


39 


I    _ 

— ^~  ■--'~"'- 

i   ... 

^ — 

"^ 

Columbia,  Mo. 


40 


ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 


mounted  on  a  suitable  background.  In  every  in- 
stance the  essential  feature  is  that  the  maker  shall 
be   endeavoring   to   express   an   idea  clearly.     The 


JACK  AMD  THE  BEAM-STALK 


»ii 


^ 

itw 


Cnnrlesy  of  Nnrmul  / ii  Jriirtor. 

Fig.  14.  —  Story  Illustration  in  Brush  work.     Second  Grade.    Columbia,  Mo. 

educative  value  of  poster  making  is  directly  pro- 
portionate to  the  emphasis  placed  upon  this  essential. 
This  implies  first  of  all  that  the  pupil  must  have  a 
definite  idea  to  express.  The  clearer  the  idea  at  the 
start  the  more  successful  the  expression  is  likely  to 
be.     It  is  true,  however,  as  stated  above,  that  the 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF    ILLUSTRATION  4I 

attempt  to  express  in  tangible  form  does  tend  to 
define  and  clarify  an  idea  which  may  be  somewhat 
vague  at  first.  The  making  of  the  poster  offers  an 
opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  judge  the  quality  of 
the  child's  mental  operations  as  evidenced  in  the 
vagueness  or  clearness  of  his  expression.  This 
implies  also  that  in  the  making  of  the  poster  the 
pupil  must  be  allowed  to  express  his  own  ideas  freely. 
He  should  be  thrown  upon  his  own  responsibility  to 
the  fullest  possible  extent  in  the  choice  of  material 
and  in  its  arrangement.  The  teacher  who  in  her 
zeal  for  showy  results  directs  too  closely  in  these 
matters,  robs  the  children  of  the  development  which 
comes  through  the  necessity  of  deciding  for  them- 
selves. 

A  striking  example  of  the  truth  of  the  above  state- 
ments occurred  in  one  classroom.  The  pupils  were 
being  introduced  to  the  process  of  poster  making 
and  were  working  with  great  earnestness.  Their 
immecHate  })robk'm  was  to  show  the  products  of  a 
certain  country  by  means  of  pictures  collected  from 
various  sources.  No  directions  had  been  given 
exce})t  that  they  were  to  find  ap])r<)])riate  jnctures 
and  arrange  them  as  tastefully  as  they  coukl  upon 
the  mounting  sheet.  As  the  jiosters  were  fmished 
they  were  ])Ut  up  in  the  (h'sphiy  ])anel  above  the 
blackboard  for  the  benefit  of  the  class.  One  little 
girl  had  been  very  zealous  and  had  succeeded  in 
finding  a  large  numbtr  of  ])ictures.     She  put  her 


42  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

chief  treasure,  a  colored  (pink)  picture,  in  the  middle 
of  her  poster  and  grouped  all  the  others  closely  about 
it.     Before  it  was  finished  several  other  posters  were 
displayed  on  the  wall,  giving  her  opportunity  for 
comparison.     When  her  own  was  finished  she  handed 
it  to  her  teacher  with  the  comment,  **  Mine  isn't 
any  good.     It's  too  crowded."     Perhaps  it  "  wasn't 
any  good  "  for  use  in  a  collection  for  a  school  exhibit, 
but  it  had  at  least  been  good  for  the  purpose  of  open- 
ing one  child's  eyes  to  an  appreciation  of  certain  art 
values.     Perhaps  some  reader  is  skeptical  and  thinks 
the  teacher  should  not  have  permitted  the  child  to 
produce  so  poor  a  piece  of  work,  but  should  have 
offered  helpful  suggestions  in  time  to  secure  a  better 
result.     Let  us  see.     Suppose  the  teacher  had  di- 
rected the  children  to  arrange  their  pictures  but  not 
to  paste  them  until  her  approval  was  given.     Un- 
doubtedly,   she    would    in    this    case    have    called 
attention    to    the    overcrowded    arrangement    and 
the  child  would  have  felt  that  her  large  collection 
of  pictures  was  not  fully  appreciated.     The  teacher 
would  also  have  been  quite  likely  to  advise  the  re- 
moval of  the  pink  picture,  the  most  beautiful  one 
in  the  child's  eyes.     The  teacher's  advice,  or  com- 
mand, would  have  brought  about  a  better  poster, 
but    what    else?     A    disappointed,    perhaps    sullen 
child  would  have  been  yearning  for  the  picture  she 
had  meant  to  make,  while  feehng  herself  unappre- 
ciated and  thinking  little  of  her  teacher's  taste.     In 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    ILLUSTRATION 


43 


Fig.  is.  —  Cuban  Indublrics.    rai)cr  Cutting,    ijccoud  Grade.     Columbia,  Mo. 


44  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


the  other  instance,  which  is  happily  the  real  one, 
the  child  carried  out  her  own  idea,  found  it  unsatis- 
factory, and  was  in  a  teachable  frame  of  mind. 
Ha\'ing  already  risen  to  a  higher  level  of  appreciation 
in  the  discover}^  that  her  work  was  "  too  crowded," 
she  was  eager  to  receive  suggestions  for  its  further 
improvement. 

In  our  haste  for  results  we  are  apt  to  overlook  the 
real  purpose  of  our  work  and  forget  that  true  educa- 
tion is,  as  Dr.  Thorndike  expresses  it,  that  which 
changes  us,  and  that  the  external  results  are  valuable 
chiefly  as  a  proof  of  the  inward  transformation.  Too 
often  we  cannot,  or  will  not,  take  time  to  let  the 
child  find  himself  through  his  own  activities,  but 
must  cover  the  prescribed  amount  of  ground  in  the 
given  time  and  get  results  that  look  well  on  the  class- 
room wall,  ly 

Poster  making  and  all  forms  of  illustrative  work 
should  be  treated  as  seriously  as  the  arithmetic 
lesson  or  any  other  regular  exercise.  It  should  not 
be  used  as  recreation  merely,  nor  only  for  display 
purposes  on  visitors'  day.  If  it  is  used  as  regular 
work,  there  will  always  be  plenty  of  material  for 
display  when  needed. 

Materials.  —  Pictures  of  a  helpful  sort  ar^  scat- 
tered through  daily  papers,  discarded  magazines, 
and  much  advertising  matter,  where  their  value  is 
lost.  These  may  be  collected,  mounted,  and  pre- 
served for  general  and   individual   use.     Freehand 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    ILLUSTRATION  45 

sketches  wdth  pencil,  crayon,  or  water  color  may  be 
made  on  drawing  paper  of  various  grades.  Free- 
hand cuttings  may  be  mounted  on  bogus  or  kraft 
wrapping  paper.  These  two  papers  are  cheap  and 
easUy  obtainable  and  serve  well  as  mounts  and  back- 
grounds for  all  sorts  of  posters.  Ingrain  wall  papers 
serv-e  well  as  mounts  for  large  posters. 

Subject  Matter,  —  Subject  matter  for  posters 
may  be  drawn  from  the  various  subjects  studied, 
particularly  history,  geography,  and  literature.  In 
history  the  poster  may  emphasize  some  particular 
event  or  a  series  of  events  ;  such  a  series  as  the  early 
explorations  in  America  may  be  brought  out  in  a 
series  of  posters  (See  Project  No.  V). 

In  literature  the  emotional  appeal  is  deepened 
through  the  attempt  to  portray  even  roughly  the 
situations  described.  In  the  illustrations  for  Miles 
Stanrlish  shown  on  ])agc  174  the  ])upil  had  to  imagine 
himself  in  John  Alden's  place  before  he  could  give 
Alden  the  dejected  attitude  suitable  to  his  state  of 
mind  while  on  the  way  to  do  his  friend's  bidding. 
The  freehand  sketch  is  especially  suitable  in  the  study 
of  literary  toj)ics  dealing  with  character. 

In  nature  study,  pictures  of  ])lants  and  animals 
may  be  collected  anrl  grouped  under  significant 
heads,  such  as  useful  j)hints  and  the  j)urposes  they 
serve,  harmful  insects  and  how  to  get  rid  of  them, 
domestic  animals  and  how  to  care  for  ihem. 

In  geography,  the  topics  of  scenery,  occupations, 


46 


ILLl^STRATIVE    HANDWORK 


o 

a 

O 


-a 


3 
O 

a 

o 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    ILLUSTRATION  47 

productions,  homes,  costumes,  and  many  other 
topics,  may  be  studied  through  the  making  of  posters. 
A  single  poster  may  be  made  to  show  the  products 
of  a  region,  or  a  series  of  posters  may  trace  the  source, 
manufacture,  and  distribution  of  a  single  commodity. 
For  example,  a  series  of  posters  on  iron  would  show 
a  chart  map  locating  the  principal  iron  deposits, 
the  methods  of  mining  and  manufacture,  the  variety 
of  things  made  from  iron,  and  the  commercial  fea- 
tures connected  with  the  distribution  of  iron  products. 
The  making  of  such  a  series  of  poster  illustrations 
becomes,  or  may  become,  a  method  of  study  in  so 
far  as  the  workers  are  thrown  on  their  own  respon- 
sibihty  in  collecting  materials.  The  results  may  be 
treated  as  a  form  of  recitation  in  so  far  as  they  give 
evidence  of  what  the  worker  has  learned  concerning 
the  subject  in  hand. 

Class  Organization.  —  Poster  making  permits  a 
wide  variety  of  class  organization.  Each  pupil 
may  make  an  indixidual  illustration  for  a  single 
topic.  This  gives  opportunity  for  comparison  and 
shows  differences  in  concej)tion.  The  slow  jmj)il 
gets  ideas  from  his  brighter  mates.  Secondly,  a 
large  toj)ic  may  be  subdivided,  giving  a  different 
feature  to  each  j)ui)il,  allowing  <)i)j)()rtunity  for 
covering  a  broad  field  (juickly  and  giving  the  entire 
class  the  benefit  of  more  than  any  one  meml)er  could 
accomplish  alone.  Or,  each  memljcr  of  a  grouj)  may 
contribute  a  part  to  a  single  illustration,  calling  into 


48 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


o 


o 
U 


XI 

o 


o 

Q 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    ILLUSTRATION  49 

action  a  community  spirit.  The  main  features  of 
a  subject  may  be  shown  in  a  single  poster,  or  related 
events  may  be  shown  in  a  series  of  pictures.  Such 
a  series  may  be  the  work  of  one  pupil  or  of  a  co- 
operating group. 

Standards  and  Criticism.  —  In  the  making  of 
posters  lirst  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  illustrative 
value.  The  picture  should  tell  its  story  clearly  and 
well.  Emphasis  should  also  be  laid  upon  the  art 
values  of  spacing  and  color  harmony.  Spacing  is 
especially  important  in  the  mounting  of  pictures. 
A  good  poster  should  need  very  little  explanation, 
but  such  as  is  given  should  be  printed  in  plain,  well- 
made  letters.  Few  school  children  are  able  to  print 
well.  ■  Poster  making  tends  to  make  them  appre- 
ciate the  \'alue  and  importance  of  good  printing  and 
to  stimulate  them  to  become  proficient.  Art  ap- 
preciation being  a  matter  of  growth  should  receive 
due  attention  at  every  point,  that  the  children  may 
absorb  the  idea  that  beauty  in  life  concerns  our 
everyday  affairs  and  consists  largely  of  pxecuting 
small  details  in  a  beautiful  and  fmished  way. 

Finished  j)osters  should  be  criticized  in  a  kindl)- 
spirit  by  both  ])ui)ils  and  teachers,  and  suggestions 
offered  for  the  improvement  of  ihc  next  set.  The 
method  of  criticism  should  al\va\s  look  for  and  em- 
phasize the  good  points  lirst.  'I'his  alone  will  cause 
the  qualil)'  of  the  work  to  rise  to  a  higher  level. 
After  the  children  learn  how  to  find  the  good  points 


50 


ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 


and  give  a  reason  for  liking  them  instead  of  laughing 
at  the  mistakes  of  their  classmates,  it  is  helpful  to 
use  a  constructive  form  of  criticism,  as  for  example, 
"  John  Alden  is  larger  than  the  trees  in  the  forest"  ; 
"  The  letters  in  the  title  are  irregular  "  ;  "  The  border 
line  is  too  heavy"  ;  and  similar  comments. 


Tig.  i8.  —  Ilalluwe'cn  rosters.     Fifth  Grade.     Columbia,  Mo. 


In  general  this  method  of  criticism  holds  good 
for  all  forms  of  handwork.  The  teacher's  opinion, 
arbitrarily  given,  does  little  to  help  the  children  to 
higher  independent  judgments.  They  need  to  be 
taught,  little  by  little,  what  points  to  look  for  and 
what  makes  them  right  or  wrong.     Unless  we  can 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    ILLUSTRATION  5 1 

develop  in  them  intelligent  standards  of  apprecia- 
tion, art  education  wall  fail  of  its  purpose  and  we 
shall  encourage  a  superficial  juggling  with  high- 
sounding  terms  and  a  servile  dependence  upon  any- 
popular  authority.  Continued  through  the  grades 
as  a  method  of  illustration  for  general  subject  matter, 
poster  making  offers  a  field  in  which  the  pupil  may 
apply  the  technical  points  studied  in  his  drawing 
lesson.  The  drawing  hour  may  often  be  devoted 
to  teaching  how  to  get  better  results  in  some  particu- 
lars in  which  the  work  is  weak. 
Suggested  Applications. 

1.  Illustrations  to  emphasize  any  point  in  daily 
lessons  which  can  be  more  effectively  impressed  by 
the  making  of  a  poster. 

2.  In  general  reviews  much  ground  can  be  covered 
quickly  and  effectively  through  a  poster  contest.  (See 
Project  No.  V.) 

3.  Much  helj)ful  reference  matter  may  be  col- 
lected from  current  papers,  mounted  on  uniform 
cards,  and  filed  in  an  indexed  box  for  future  use. 
This  helj)s  to  de\el()])  systematic  habits  and  en- 
courages a  pubHc-spirited  thoughtfulness  for  the 
general  welfare. 

Points  to  Be  Especially  Emphasized. 

1.  Choice  of  nuitcrial.  —  Does  the  jioster  tell  its 
story  clearly?     Avoid  attempting  to  tell  too  much. 

2.  Arran{{cmcnt.  —  If  several  small  i)ictures  are 
used,  do  they  make  a  well-balanced  page?     This  is 


52  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

an  excellent  field  for  applied  design.     Avoid  crowd- 
ing. 

3.  Drawing  and  color. — Poster  making  offers  a 
field  for  developing  ability  in  freehand  drawing  and 
in  color  harmony. 

4.  Lettering.  —  A  very  important  factor.  Poster 
making  creates  a  feeling  of  need  for  abihty  to  letter 
well  and  stimulates  progress.  Encourage  plain 
lettering,  well  executed. 

5.  Margins.  —  A  well-proportioned  margin  adds 
much  to  general  appearnace. 

BOOKMAKING 

Illustrated  booklets  as  a  form  of  school  work  are  in 
common  use  and  form  a  helpful  accompaniment  to 
nearly  all  book  subjects.  The  interest  aroused 
through  collecting  and  sketching  illustrations  for 
the  booklet  has  great  motive  power.  Binding  the 
sheets  into  appropriate  and  attractive  covers  gives  a 
stimulating  sense  of  permanent  value  to  written 
work.  Too  much  classroom  work  finds  early  lodg- 
ment in  the  waste  basket.  Only  the  buoyant  hope- 
fulness of  youth  can  persist  in  long  continued  and 
repeated  efforts  at  writing,  done  only  to  be  thrown 
away  as  soon  as  its  mistakes  have  been  pointed  out. 
The  opportunities  in  bookmaking  for  incidental 
emphasis  on  art  values  are  similar  to  those  noted 
above  under  the  head  of  poster  making. 

The   successful   results  to   be   derived   from   the 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    ILLUSTRATION 


53 


varied  opportunities  offered,  depend  largely  upon 
the  methods  used.  In  many  schools  booklets  are 
made  only  for  exhibit  days  and  special  occasions. 
The  importance  of  these  occasions  demands  an 
outward  show  of  success  which  is  often  attained 
through  strained  supervision,  wearisome  alike  to 
pupil  and  teacher. 
In  such  cases  the 
teacher  assumes  re- 
sponsibility for  the 
final  result  by  se- 
lecting and  out- 
lining the  subject 
matter,  criticizing 
the  first  draft,  and 
requiring  it  to  be 
rewritten  until  it 
reaches  or  ap- 
proaches a  given 
standard.  She 
usually  dictates  the 
cover  design  by  the  same  detailed  process.  The 
j)U])il  struggles  to  express  the  ideas  the  teacher 
has  aj)i)ortioned  lo  liim,  often  with  much  unwill- 
ingness. By  the  time  the  final  result  is  reached,  all 
the  joy  it  might  have  held  has  vanished,  and  the 
work  is  neither  a  self-expression  for  the  \)U\)\\  nor 
often  a  satisfactory  examj)le  of  the  standards  set 
by  the  teacher. 


Km.   itj.  —  Booklets.     Si.xth  ("irade.     (See 
Trojccl  No.  IV.) 


54  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

The  making  of  a  booklet  reaches  its  highest  edu- 
cative value  when  the  pupil  feels  the  maximum 
responsibility  for  its  success.  He  should  feel  that 
he  has  something  to  say  which  is  worth  saying,  some 
information  to  record  which  is  worth  preserving. 
He  should  be  inspired  to  make  his  record  as  accu- 
rate as  possible  and  to  preserve  it  in  appropriate  and 
attractive  form.  The  work  should  be  treated  as  a 
phase  of  common  study  and  recitation  and  not  as  a 
means  of  display.  The  best  results,  described  later, 
were  secured  when  the  pupil  was  required,  before  his 
w^ork  was  inspected  by  the  teacher,  to  write  his  de- 
scriptions, select  and  arrange  his  illustrations,  and 
then  fasten  his  material  in  an  attractive  cover.  In 
so  doing,  he  felt  the  same  necessity  for  knowing  that 
his  statements  were  true  that  an  adult  feels  when 
writing  an  important  letter.  The  mistakes  found  in 
the  finished  production  were  of  more  serious  moment 
than  when  there  was  opportunity  to  correct  them. 
As  a  rule  it  hurts  more  to  be  refused  the  privilege 
of  correcting  an  error  one  wishes  to  blot  out  than 
to  be  forced  to  correct  a  mistake  one  does  not  regard 
as  important.     (See  Project  No.  XII.) 

Materials.  —  The  use  of  separate  sheets  of  paper 
of  a  fair  quality  and  uniform  size  has  many  advan- 
tages over  the  use  of  composition  books.  If  correc- 
tions are  needed,  a  leaf  or  two  may  easily  be  replaced 
without  spoiling  the  general  effect.  The  various 
cover  papers,  bogus  paper,  certain  plain  wall  papers, 


VARIOUS    FORMS    OF    ILLUSTRATION  55 

and  hea\'y  kraft  wrapping  paper  all  serve  well  for 
covers.  Stiff  boards  with  cloth  backs  may  be  used 
by  advanced  classes.  Macreme  cord  or  any  heavy 
cord  may  be  used  for  tying  leaves  and  cover  together. 
Paper  fasteners  serve  for  temporary  work  but  are 
more  expensive  and  less  attractive  than  the  cords. 
Crayon,  water  color,  and  India  ink  may  be  used  in 
making  cover  designs.      (See  Project  No.  XII.) 

Pictures  for  illustration  other  than  freehand 
sketches,  ma\'  be  found  in  many  waste  papers  and 
discarded  magazines.  \'ery  excellent  pictures  are 
often  to  be  found  in  advertising  material.  In  one 
town  the  children  made  such  a  thorough  canvass 
for  material  of  this  sort  that  a  business  man  said 
he  never  threw  any  paper  into  his  waste  basket 
without  looking  to  see  if  it  had  on  it  any  poster 
pictures  that  the  children  might  want. 

Subject  Matter.  —  Subject  matter  for  illus- 
trated booklets  may  be  drawn  from  nearly  every 
field  of  study.  Beginning  in  the  lowest  grades  the 
book  may  be  only  a  colicclioii  of  leaves  upon  which 
are  mounted  free  cuttings  or  crayon  sketches.  Later, 
as  the  children  learn  to  write,  names  and  brief  de- 
scriptions may  be  added.  As  ])rogress  through  the 
grades  is  made,  the  text  becomes  more  and  more 
prominent  until  in  the  uj)])er  grades  it  is  ])os- 
siblc  to  j)roduce  well-bound  ))0()ks,  carefully  written 
or  typewritten,  and  S(Mnetimes  i)rinted  by  the 
pupils. 


56  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Class  Organization.  —  Booklet  making  is  of  neces- 
sity an  individual  process,  except  in  the  few  instances 
where  it  is  desired  to  have  each  pupil  contribute 
something  to  a  composite  production  which  is  to  be 
retained  by  the  school.  The  variations  possible 
lie  in  the  organization  of  the  work  for  the  individual 
pupil.  His  efforts  may  be  directed  toward  a  few 
large  projects  for  which  material  is  collected  during 
a  long  period,  or  each  phase  of  a  subject  may  be 
treated  by  itself.  These  points  must  depend  upon 
the  nature  of  the  subject. 

Standards  and  Criticism.  —  The  points  already 
enumerated  under  the  head  of  posters  apply  with 
equal  force  in  the  criticism  of  illustrated  booklets. 
The  standards  by  which  the  work  of  any  grade  is 
judged  should  never  be  so  far  beyond  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pupils  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to 
attain  fair  success  through  their  unaided  efforts. 
Bookmaking  should  begin-in  the  lowest  grade,  where 
it  need  be  only  the  fastening  together  of  a  few  leaves 
on  which  pictures  have  been  made  or  cuttings 
mounted,  and  should  continue  through  the  grades 
with  steady  progress  in  form  and  technique  until 
in  the  upper  grades  well-bound  books  are  produced. 

While  bookmaking  serves  as  an  adjunct  to  various 
regular  subjects,  adding  interest  to  the  study  and 
providing  a  desirable  method  of  preserving  useful 
information,  the  various  processes  involved  in  book- 
making  are  worthy  of  study  as  a  technical  subject 


VARIOUS   FORMS    OF   ILLUSTRATION  57 

which  may  be  organized  in  a  series  of  progressive 
exercises  well  suited  to  the  developing  capacities  of 
the  children.  In  many  schools  a  booklet  is  never 
more  than  a  few  sheets  of  written  work  tied  into  an 
over-decorated  cover  mth  a  quantity  of  ribbon, 
this  style  being  used  in  upper  and  lower  grades  alike. 
At  least  one  advanced  step  in  the  process  should  be 
introduced  each  year,  and  the  children  should  be 
allowed  and  required  to  use  the  method  repeatedly 
until  they  master  it  thoroughly. 

Sandtable  Representations 

Sargent  very  aptly  describes  sandtable  represen- 
tations as  pictures  in  three  dimensions.  As  the 
ordinary-  picture  adds  vividness  to  the  printed  de- 
scrij)tion,  so  the  placing  of  actual  figures  adds  reality 
to  the  scenes  rei)resented.  The  necessity  for  creat- 
ing some  tangible  rejiresentation  himself,  helps  the 
child  to  visualize  the  descriptions  he  reads  and 
stimulates  his  imagination,  since  he  must  see  with 
"  his  mind's  eye  "  before  he  can  successfully  repre- 
sent. This  is  a  desirable  habit  of  mind  and  worth 
cultivating,  since  it  is  an  element  of  success  in  many 
fields  of  endeavor. 

Work  of  this  sort  is  at  its  best  when  the  pui)ils 
are  allowed  to  represent  freely  their  conce])ti()n  of 
the  toj)ic.  The  attemj)!  to  exj)ress  hel])s  to  give 
shape  to  otherwise  vague  ideas.  The  ([uality  of 
the   work   done   heli)S   the   teacher   to   measure   the 


58 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


pupil's  power  to  grasp  new  ideas.  Sandtables  have 
been  regarded  as  suitable  only  for  primary  rooms, 
to  be  used  there  for  play  rather  than  for  serious 
effort.  All  through  the  grades,  however,  the  sand- 
table  picture  furnishes  a  valuable  medium  of  ex- 
pression in  geography,  history,  and  literature,  not 


Fig.  20.  —  From  Cabin  to  White  House.     Fifth  Grade  Class  while  reading 

the  life  of  Lincoln. 

(The  work  had  been  completed  some  days  and  was  about  to  be  torn  down  when 
the  picture  was  taken.) 

only  adding  interest  to  the  study  but  making  im- 
pressions more  lasting  through  the  graphic  nature 
of  the  work. 

Sandtablc  problems  may  be  of  two  sorts,  either 
elaborately  planned  miniatures  which  demand 
accuracy  of  detail,  or  quickly  made  represen- 
tations which  emphasize  a  few  imi)ortant  points 
for  brief  discussion.  Accurately  made  miniatures 
are  often  of  great  help  in  explaining  perplexing 
details,   but  their  construction  requires  too  much 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF    ILLUSTRATION 


59 


rvfS^fi 

4    ^U..  ■'-■-'■ 

time  to  permit 
them  to  be  used  to 
any  great  extent  in 
regular  school  work. 
Illustrations  of  the 
second  tyn^e  depend 
for  their  value  upon 
general  effect.  They 
may  be  of  very  tem- 
porary construction, 
sometimes  being  made 
in  a  few  minutes  and 
destroyed  as  soon  as 
they  have  served 
their  purpose.  Work 
of  this  sort  is  easily 
correlated  with  \'ari- 
ous  phases  of  subject 
matter,  particularh' 
in  histor>',  geography, 
and  Hterature,  and 
it  may  be  used  as  a 
regular  feature  of  in- 
struction without  ex- 
travagant use  of  time 
and  with  great  gain 
in  interest. 

Materials.       The  materials  suitable  for  sandtablc 
work  are  as  varied  as  the  problems  which  lend  them- 


Fic.  21. — Two  views  of  a  Norman  Castle. 
Grade  6B.     Franklin,  Indiana. 


6o  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

selves  to  illustrations  of  this  sort.  Real  materials 
add  somewhat  to  the  realistic  appearance  of  such 
illustrations  when  they  are  to  be  had  in  convenient 
size.  Since  the  work  is  representative  in  character, 
the  use  of  representative  materials  is  also  possible. 
Paper  may  be  made  to  do  duty  for  wood,  stone, 
and  for  forms  of  animal  life.  Clay  may  be  used 
for  many  of  these  purposes.  As  a  rule,  the  real 
material  or  its  nearest  substitute  gives  the  best 
effect,  but  the  value  of  the  illustration  is  not  de- 
pendent upon  the  accuracy  with  which  the  details 
are  carried  out. 

Subject  Matter.  —  Topics  dealing  with  persons 
and  places  lend  themselves  most  satisfactorily  to 
sandtable  work.  Abstract  and  complicated  prob- 
lems are  to  be  avoided.  Very  familiar  topics  which 
need  no  explanation  or  illustration  are  often  best 
for  the  first  attempts  at  illustrative  work,  as  one 
important  element  in  expressional  work  is  the  neces- 
sity for  an  idea  to  express.  Beginning  with  some 
familiar  topic  upon  which  his  ideas  are  clear,  the 
pupil  is  better  able  to  judge  of  his  own  success. 
Also,  it  is  important  always  to  begin  with  easy 
things  in  order  to  establish  a  habit  of  success  and 
confidence  rather  than  one  of  failure  and  discourage- 
ment. Such  projects  as  representations  of  home 
life  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  historic  events 
such  as  the  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition,  geographic 
problems  which  concern  the   physical    features   of 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF    ILLUSTRATION 


6i 


the  land,  and  scenes 
from  literary  studies 
such  as  the  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,  are  all 
well  adapted  to  sand- 
table  illustration. 

Class  Organization. 
—  In  some  quarters 
the  graded-school  idea 
has  been  so  greatly 
overemphasized  that 
no  topic  seems  properly 
presented  unless  every 
member  of  the  class  is 
doing  the  same  thing 
at  the  same  time. 
Since,  however,  only  a 
few  pupils  can  work 
advantageously  about 
a  sandtable,  the  class, 
unless  it  is  small,  can- 
not work  as  a  unit 
on  sandtable  j)rob- 
lems.  Exce])t  in  pro- 
jects which  require 
many  small  features 
which  can  be  made  by 
pu])ils  ill  their  seats, 
the  work  is  best  carried 


62 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


on  by  groups.  Such  groups  may  be  organized  with 
special  reference  to  the  immediate  project  in  hand, 
or  the  groups  may  be  definite  companies  which 
work  in  turn.  The  latter  plan  has  the  advantage 
of  keeping  enthusiasm  keen,  each  company  usually 
being  anxious  to  get  possession  of  the  table  and  to 
put  on  its  next  project. 


Fig.  23.  —  Booklets  on  Geography.    Seventh  Grade.    Columbia,  Mo. 

A  class  of  forty  was  divided  into  eight  teams  of  five  each.    The  members  of  each  team  co- 
operated in  collecting  and  preparing  the  material  for  one  booklet  as  regular  class  work. 

The  least  desirable  form  of  organization  is  that  in 
which  the  teacher  plans  the  project  with  great  defi- 
niteness  and  dictates  and  supervises  the  particular 
contribution  of  each  child.  Methods  of  this  sort 
relieve  the  pupil  of  the  necessity  of  thinking  for  him- 
self.    The  most  helpful  sandtable  projects  are  those 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF   ILLUSTRATION  63 

made  quickly  to  illustrate  some  topic  under  immedi- 
ate discussion.  It  is  also  helpful  to  treat  the  work 
as  a  form  of  recitation  and  allow  a  group  of  pupils 
to  model  a  contour  map,  for  example,  while  the  rest 
of  the  class  work  upon  some  other  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject, such  as  posters  showing  costumes,  homes,  or 
products  of  the  same  country. 

Many  teachers  fear  to  attempt  sandtable  work 
lest  the  novelty  prove  distracting  and  disturb  the 
discipline  of  the  room.  If  a  few  trusty  pupils 
are  allowed  to  build  interesting  pictures  on  the 
table,  others  will  wish  to  be  worthy  of  the  same 
prixilege  and  the  work  may  be  used  as  a  spur  to 
better  beha\'ior.  The  first  project  or  two  will, 
no  doubt,  be  watched  with  intense  interest  by 
those  at  their  scats,  but  this  fact  offers  no  argu- 
ment against  the  work,  and  the  wise  teacher  will 
turn  the  interest  to  account  as  a  lever  of  control. 
The  noveh)'  will  soon  wear  off,  and  after  that,  work 
at  the  .sandtable  will  be  no  more  disturbing  than 
work  at  the  blackboard. 

Standards  and  Criticism.  —  In  sandtable  work 
the  chief  emj)hasis  should  be  placed  upon  effect. 
In  some  problems  this  may  demand  considerable 
attention  to  detail,  but  quite  as  often  the  desired 
effect  may  be  gained  through  a  very  temporary 
structure,  fjuite  crudely  put  together.  Children 
should  be  led  to  aj)])reciate  the  difference  between 
the  temporary  structure  and  the  crudity  of  careless 


64 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


work.  In  an  elaborate  structure,  planned  to  be 
made  by  the  children  under  supervision,  there  is 
more  danger  of  careless  work  than  in  the  project  in 
which  they  are  allowed  to  work  out  their  own  ideas 

to  the  best  of  their 
ability.  The  results 
of  such  work  rnay 
be  crude,  but  they 
seldom  indicate 
carelessness.  Poor 
work  in  an  elabo- 
rately planned  pro- 
ject may  come  from 
the  pupil's  failure  to 
grasp  what  is  ex- 
pected of  him,  caus- 
ing him  to  work 
blindly.     When  the 


Fig.  24. 


—  Studies  of  Birds.     Sixth  Grade- 
Class.     Columbia,  Mo. 

These  illustrations  were  memory  sketches  in 
water  color  after  the  bird  and  its  habits  had  been 
thoroughly  studied.  Each  [>upil  vvroie  upon  seven 
or  eight  birds.  Each  description  included  a  selected 
quotation. 


responsibility  rests 
upon  the  pupil, 
though  his  ideas 
may  be  crude,  he 
knows   what'  he    is 

trying  to  do  and  to  that  extent  works  intelligently. 

If  the  problem  is  weU  chosen,  interest  in  it  creates  a 

desire  for  success. 

Much  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  speed  in  all 

sandtable  projects,  that  the  attention  of  the  workers 

may  be  held  to  the  main  points  to  be  illustrated,  and 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF   ILLUSTRATION  6$ 

may  not  become  so  engrossed  in  minor  details  that 
they  lose  sight  of  the  main  issue. 

As  each  project  is  finished  it  should  be  criticized 
by  pupils  and  teacher,  and  after  favorable  comment 
upon  its  strong  points,  suggestions  should  be  offered 
for  the  improvement  of  certain  features  likely  to  be 
met  again.  As  a  rule  more  will  be  gained  by  several 
projects  involving  similar  features  following  each 
other  closely,  than  in  strained  efforts  to  bring  one 
project  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  though  the 
temper  of  the  class  must  be  considered  in  deciding 
such  questions.     (See  Project  No.  XVII.) 

Illustrative  Construction 

Closely  related  to  picture  making  by  posters  and 
on  the  sandtable,  is  the  construction  of  miniatures 
and  models  of  interesting  objects  and  mechanisms, 
such  as  the  cotton  gin,  the  water  wheel,  the  bucket 
conveyer,  etc.  Reading  descriptions  of  these  things 
and  looking  at  pictures  of  them  is  interesting  and 
enlightening.  The  knowledge  so  gained  may  be 
clear  and  definite  in  some  cases,  but  is  apt  often  to 
be  vague  and  soon  forgotten.  The  attempt  to  make 
a  model  of  I  he  thing  described  sends  the  ])ui)il  back 
to  the  descrii)tion  to  read  again  and  again  until  he 
has  a  clearer  mental  ])icture.  The  attempt  to 
"  make  it  work  "  em|)hasizes  many  mechanical 
princii)les,  and  makes  the  idea  si  ill  clearer,  even 
though  the  work  may  be  very  roughly  and  crudely 


66 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


done.  Such  attempts  usually  clear  up  the  maker's 
idea  to  such  an  extent  that  he  can  point  out  the 
deficiencies  in  his  own  work  and  show  how  it  should 
be  made  were  he  possessed  of  the  proper  materials 
and  tools,  or  of  sufficient  skill,  or  of  time  in  which  to 
repeat  his  effort.     It  needs  no  argument  to  prove 


I'lG.  25.  —  Snowbound.     Sixth  Grade  Class.     Columbia,  Mo. 

that  a  crude  attempt  coupled  with  such  a  state  of 
mind  has  some  advantages  not  to  be  found  in  a 
model  which  is  a  mere  copy  of  another  person's  work 
made  under  dictation  and  without  independent 
thought,  even  though  such  model  were  finished  with 
great  precision. 

It  is  necessary  to  draw  a  sharp  distinction  between 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF   ILLUSTRATION  67 

construction  of  this  sort  and  the  usual  work  of  the 
school  shop  in  which  the  mastery  of  technical  pro- 
cesses is  the  purpose.  Whatever  knowledge  the 
worker  may  have  of  technical  processes  will  add  greatly 
to  the  success  of  his  representation,  and  it  is  highly  de- 
sirable that,  as  far  as  possible,  such  tools  as  he  has 
should  be  used  in  a  right  way.  He  should  not  know- 
ingly be  permitted  to  drive  screws  with  a  chisel 
nor  be  allowed  to  form  habits  which  wiU  have  to  be 
broken  later,  but  the  reference  to  tool  processes  may 
be  incidental  to  the  larger  purpose.  In  schools 
where  instruction  in  shop  methods  is  given,  the  con- 
struction of  miniatures  and  models  for  illustrative 
purposes  gives  excellent  opportunity  for  testing  the 
extent  to  which  a  pupil  can  use  his  technical  knowl- 
edge independently  in  a  project  which  he  plans  and 
executes  on  his  own  responsibility.  In  schools  where 
technical  instruction  is  not  given,  illustrative  con- 
struction gives  opportunity  for  experimenting  with 
tools  and  materials  and  gaining  much  first-hand 
knowledge  at  the  time  when  the  tinkering  tendencies 
are  strong  in  most  boys. 

Some  schools  do  no  handwork  at  all,  arguing  that 
it  is  better  to  do  nothing  than  to  do  the  wrong  thing, 
i)Ut  the  constructive  instincts  are  too  important  to 
be  overlooked  as  factors  in  the  educative  process. 
While  it  is  a  serious  mistake  to  pretend  to  l)e  teach- 
ing technical  |)rocesses  as  such  unless  they  are  rightly 
taught,  much  value  comes  from  exi)erimenting  with 


68 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


materials  in  a  way  which  gives  the  worker  first-hand 
acquaintance  with  their  characteristics  and  makes 
him  feel  his  lack  of  control  over  them.  The  harm 
comes,  not  through  his  crude  effort,  which  he  recog- 
nizes as  crude,  but  through  the  formation  of  bad 
habits  which  he  has  been  taught  or  allowed  to  be- 


FiG.  26.  —  Zinc  Mine.     Summer  Training  Class.    Missouri  University. 


lieve  are  correct  professional  methods  of  procedure. 
Free  experimentation  with  materials  under  proper 
encouragement  generally  makes  the  worker  conscious 
of  his  lack  of  control  of  both  tools  and  materials.  He 
is  then  in  a  teachable  frame  of  mind,  eager  for  the 
help  of  a  master,  and  willing,  when  opportunity  offers, 
to  perform  the  drill  work  necessary  to  acquire  skill 
in  any  process. 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF   ILLUSTRATION  69 

Some  construction  is  usually  required  with  any 
sandtable  project,  but  many  illustrative  construc- 
tions may  be  made  without  reference  to  the  sandtable. 
Models  of  machines  and  tools,  representations  of 
different  types  of  houses  and  styles  of  dress  may  be 
included.  Opportunity  for  proper  correlation  of 
this  sort  of  work  comes  only  occasionally,  and  it 
may  often  be  done  out  of  school  hours  and  offered 
as  a  special  contribution  to  the  class  by  the  maker. 
Once  or  twice  a  year  some  large  problem,  such  as 
the  evolution  of  travel,  described  later,  may  be  taken 
up  with  advantage  by  an  entire  class. 

Materials.  —  Any  material  which  will  serve  the 
purpose  may  be  used  in  illustrative  construction, 
since  little  em])hasis  is  placed  upon  technique.  Wood, 
clay,  and  cardboard  serve  a  variety  of  purposes. 
A  few  of  the  most  necessar}'  materials,  such  as  wood 
scraps,  cardboard,  ])apc'r,  cloth,  and  nails,  with  ham- 
mer and  saw,  may  be  ke])t  always  on  hand  in  the 
classroom.  For  some  ])rojects  a  small  amount  of 
some  particular  material  may  be  needed,  which  the 
worker  will  take  pleasure  in  providin^f  for  himself. 
One  boy,  for  exam]:)le,  whose  ])art  in  the  making  of  a 
Dutch  farm  was  to  provide  the  windmill,  bought  a 
mechanical  toy  in  order  to  secure  the  s[)ring  which 
was  needed  to  make  his  windmill  turn. 

Subject  Matter. — The  t()j)ics  which  may  be 
hel])fully  illustrated  by  con.struction  belong  chiefly 
to  the  field  of  industry.     Machines  and  tools,  their 


70 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


evolution  and  operation, 
costumes,  utensils,  and 
vehicles  of  different 
peoples,  and  similar 
topics,  are  full  of  inter- 
est and  may,  with  ad- 
vantage, be  constructed 
with  considerable  care, 
to  be  passed  on  to  future 
generations  of  pupils, 
each  class  adding  some- 
thing to  the  collection. 
The  attempt  to  work 
out  such  constructions 
sets  the  maker  to  study- 
ing the  secrets  of  their 
mechanism.  Even 
though  his  project  may 
not  be  highly  success- 
ful, he  is  bound  to  gain 
some  first-hand  experi- 
ence with  physical  laws 
and  mechanical  princi- 
ples which  helps  in  de- 
veloping what  we  some- 
times call  "  mechanical 
inteUigence."  That  this 
quality  of  mind  seems  to 
be    more    common    in 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF   ILLUSTRATION  7 1 

boys  than  in  girls  is  probably  due  in  large  measure 
to  the  fact  that  boys  have  greater  opportunity  for 
and  receive  more  encouragement  in  this  sort  of 
tinkering.  Home-made  apparatus  for  school  use 
may  also  be  included  in  this  list  of  things  to  make. 
(See  Project  No.  X.) 

Class  Organization.  —  Projects  in  construction 
permit  a  great  variety  of  class  organization.  In 
large  undertakings,  the  representation  of  the  Panama 
Canal  on  the  sandtable,  for  example,  the  work  will 
require  cooperative  efforts  under  the  direction  of  a 
leader  or  foreman.  Many  problems  will  need  to 
be  studied  out  together  by  the  children,  and  since 
it  is  impossible  for  many  children  to  work  about  the 
sandtable  at  the  same  time,  the  work  must  be  di- 
vided among  groups,  each  group  responsible  for  a 
definite  })art  of  a  common  i)lan.  Not  least  among 
the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  work  of  this  sort 
is  the  oi)portunity  it  gives  for  organization  and  team 
work  among  the  pu])ils. 

In  })r()blems  such  as  representing  characteristic 
modes  of  travel  in  (liffcrcnt  countries,  or  the  dressing 
of  dolls  in  ( haracteristic  costumes,  the  different 
j)hascs  of  the  work  arc  quite  distinct  and  may  be 
individual  ])rojccts.  Work  of  this  sort  may  often 
be  done  at  home. 

Standards  and  Criticism.  In  constructions,  as 
in  sandtable  i)roblems,  the  emi)hasis  should  be  ui)on 
effect    and    illustrative    value.     Technique    is,    in 


72  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

general,  of  secondary  importance,  but  should  receive 
more  emphasis  in  models  6i  a  somewhat  permanent 
character  than  is  necessary  in  sandtable  projects 
which  serve  their  purpose  almost  by  the  time  they 
are  finished.  Such  a  project  as  the  model  of  a  cotton 
gin,  which  is  to  be  examined  by  many  people,  should 
be  made  well  enough  to  bear  inspection.  In  all  free 
work  of  this  sort  a  sharp  distinction  should  be  drawn 
between  the  crudity  of  work  in  which  the  maker  has 
carefully  done  his  best  to  express  an  idea  and  the 
cruditv  which  comes  from  the  careless  worker  who 
thinks  anything  is  good  enough  if  he  can  get  it  ac- 
cepted. 

The  Study  of  Industries.  —  The  common  industries 
of  the  present  day  offer  another  rich  field  of  study 
in  which  the  making  of  miniatures  and  models  adds 
vitality  to  the  work.  Such  informal  study  gives  a 
general  acquaintance  with  various  kinds  of  work 
which  are  being  done  in  the  world.  Such  knowledge 
is  the  first  step  toward  vocational  guidance.  Prob- 
lems of  this  sort  are  well  suited  to  grades  five,  six, 
and  seven,  and  form  a  helpful  adjunct  to  the  school 
excursion.  If  some  sort  of  representation  is  at- 
tempted before  the  excursion  is  made,  it  increases 
the  keenness  of  the  interest  and  observation  of  the 
pupils,  particularly  in  details  with  which  they  have 
had  trouble.  If  the  excursion  is  made  first,  the 
attempt  to  give  concrete  expression  to  the  ideas 
gained  impresses  them  more  deeply  and  often  sends 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF   ILLUSTR.\TION 


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74  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

them  back  to  observe  again  to  clear  up  vague  im- 
pressions. The  representation  may  sometimes  be 
a  model  of  some  one  machine  or  feature  of  a  process. 
Again  it  may  show  the  entire  plant  in  miniature  and 
the  relationship  of  the  various  machines  and  pro- 
cesses. The  lack  of  emphasis  on  technique  allows 
free  play  for  initiative  and  the  children  are  apt  to 
produce  more  ingenious  models  than  any  one  teacher 
could  suggest.  Incidentally  much  information  which 
is  helpful  later  on  when  technical  work  is  begun,  is 
gained  from  handling  tools  and  material.  Topics 
such  as  the  following  will  awaken  keen  interest  in 
the  middle  grades  and  offer  profitable  problems  in 
construction. 

Any  local  industry. 

A  flour  mill. 

A  planing  mill. 

An  ice  plant. 

Brick-making  processes  and  products. 

A  telephone  system. 

United  States  mail  service. 

Bridges  of  various  types  and  uses. 

Canal  locks. 

Elevators. 

Electrical  apparatus. 

Motors  of  various  sorts. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE    SELECTION     OF    TOPICS    FOR     CONCRETE 

ILLUSTRATION 

(a)  Topics  Not  Suited  to  Concrete  Illustration.  — 
The  field  of  concrete  illustration  is  limited  by  the 
nature  of  the  topics  studied.  Such  illustrations  are 
not  ecjually  valuable  for  all  topics.  Topics  which 
cannot  be  adequately  represented  A\athout  complex 
details  are  not  desirable  for  concrete  illustration 
because  the  attention  of  the  worker  is  apt  to  become 
so  entangled  in  the  details  that  he  loses  sight  of  the 
main  issue.  The  thing  he  produces  is  apt  to  be  so 
incomplete  that  it  gives  a  wrong  impression.  Such 
topics  also  require  an  amount  of  time  dispropor- 
tionate to  their  \alue.  For  example,  in  illifslrating 
the  evolution  of  navigation,  though  models  of  simple 
types  of  boats  can  be  made  well  enough  to  give  a  good 
idea  of  their  character,  children  could  not,  even  at 
considerable  expense  of  time,  make  a  model  of  a 
modem  steamship  which  would  show  more  than  its 
general  proportions.  Ciood  ])ictures  would,  therefore, 
convey  a  much  clearer  idea  of  the  details  of  such  a 
structure. 

75 


76 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


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TOPICS    FOR   CONCRETE    ILLUSTRATION  77 

Topics  in  which  the  chief  values  hinge  upon  ques- 
tions of  poHcy,  time,  speed,  or  other  intangible  or 
abstract  ideas,  are  not  apt  to  be  greatly  aided  by 
concrete  illustrations.  Thus,  for  example,  in  study- 
ing the  causes  of  the  Rev^olution,  since  the  subject 
matter  deals  chiefly  with  differences  of  opinion  be- 
tween England  and  the  Colonies,  it  does  not  furnish 
topics  which  lend  themselves  to  concrete  illustration. 

Topics  which  involve  places  /and  processes  with 
which  the  workers  are  very  familiar  and  which  form 
an  actual  part  of  their  daily  lives  do  not  need  illus- 
tration. The  actual  making  of  a  small  amount  of 
butter,  for  instance,  might  be  very  enlightening  to 
a  group  of  city  children,  but  it  would  be  a  waste  of 
time  for  a  rural  group  well  versed  in  the  actual 
methods. 

As  a  partial  exception  to  this  last  rule,  first  at- 
tempts at  illustration  should  deal  only  with  topics 
with  which  the  children  are  comparatively  familiar, 
since  free  expression  im])licsan  idea  to  be  expressed. 
This  exception  a})])lies  with  sj)ecial  force  when  illus- 
trative methods  are  first  introduced  into  intermediate 
grades  where  children  are  old  enough  to  be  self- 
conscious  and  shy  about  expressing  themselves.  In 
such  instances  the  famih'ar  topic  will  seem  easy  and 
give  them' confidence  in  themselves.  It  will  also 
make  them  better  abli'  to  measure  tlicir  own  success. 

(h)  Topics  Well  Suited  to  Concrete  Illustration.  — 
In  general,  toj)ics  which  have  to  do  with  persons  and 


yS  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

places  and  which  in\'olve  some  activity  are  made 
clearer  by  concrete  illustration.  As  examples  we 
might  take  the  story  of  Daniel  Boone  or  a  descrip- 
tion of  home  life  in  pioneer  days.  In  such  illustra- 
tions the  figures  may  be  placed  in  significant  relations 
to  each  other.  They  may  be  moved  about  and  made 
to  assume  characteristic  attitudes  and  so  provide  a 
sort  of  picture  in  three  dimensions.  Such  a  repre- 
sentation usually  carries  with  it  a  greater  atmosphere 
of  reality  than  is  possible  with  the  picture  in  two 
dimensions.  Such  representations  are  particularly 
helpful  in  the  study  of  topics  which  deal  with  con- 
trasts between  our  present  habits  and  customs  and 
those  of  other  times  and  places.  They  are  helpful, 
also,  in  studies  which  deal  with  mechanical  apparatus. 

The  following  tables  contain  a  selection  of  topics  in 
geography  and  history  which  are  suitable  for  concrete 
illustration.  These  topics  are  taken  from  the  texts  in 
use  in  the  Columbia  schools  in  the  grades  indicated, 
at  the  time  the  experimental  studies  were  in  progress. 

Many  topics  may  be  illustrated  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  Appropriate  forms  of  illustration  are  indi- 
cated after  each  topic  or  group  of  topics.  (See  note, 
p.  79.)  In  no  single  instance  would  it  be  desirable 
to  use  all  or  even  a  large  percentage  of  the  illustra- 
tions listed.  The  entire  list  is  offered  as  a  suggestion 
for  the  selection  of  topics  and  in  the  hope  that  it  may 
be  helpful  to  the  busy  teacher  who  has  scant  time  to 
study  out  the  many  problems  incident  to  her  work. 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE    ILLUSTRATION  79 

Following  the  detailed  list  of  topics  is  given  a 
type  of  outline  for  the  use  of  illustrative  methods  as 
applied  to  the  geography  of  South  America.  This 
outhne  may  be  modified  to  suit  other  topics  and  the 
conditions  of  indi\idual  classes. 

Topics  for  Illustration 
geography 

Suggested  list  of  topics  drawn  from  Tarr  and  McMurry's 
New  Geography,  Book  II,  with  one  or  more  suitable  forms 
of  illustration  for  each.  Fifth  grade,  topics  1-94 ;  Sixth 
grade,  topics  95-194;   Seventh  grade,  topics  195-243. 

The  letters  indicate  the  form  of  illustration.^ 

Pages 

1.  Relief  map  of  North  America :    General  outlines 

only;     for    study    of     drainage,     effect    of 
mountains    on    winds    and    rainfall,    loca- 
tion   of    glacier,    morlification    of    moun- 
tains, etc.   (S.) 5-12 

2.  Plantsof  North  America.     In  series  according  to 

sections  (P.  B.) 13-22 

3.  Animals  of  North  America  (P.  C.) 13-22 

4.  People  of  North  America  (P.  B.  S.) 22-26 

General  facts  for  United  States 26-30 

5.  Color  maps  and  charts  showing 

centers  of  jiopulation 
farming  regions 
mining  regions  (P.) 

'  P  . —  Poster,  including  all  maps  and  charts;  H  Illustrated  book- 
let; S  — Sandtahic  rfprcscntat ion  ;  C  — Construction  in  various  ma- 
terials, including  clay  modeling. 


8o  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

New  England 

Paces 

6.  Relief  map,  showing  vegetation  (S.)    ....    31-32 

7.  Occupations 

lumber  camp 33~3S 

quarry 35-36 

fisheries 37~3S 

farming  and  dairying  (P.  B.  S.  C.) ....  38-39 

factories  and  water  power 40 

making  paper 41 

making  cloth 42 

making  shoes  (P.  B.  C.) 43 

8.  Cities,  illustrated  descriptions  (B.)     ....  44-46 

location  on  sand  and  color  maps  (P.  S.) 

9.  Products  —  in  review  (P.) 33~44 

10.  Product  map  —  Samples  of  products  fastened 

to  map 

Middle  Atlantic  States 

11.  Relief  map,  showing  vegetation  and  products 

(S.) 48-50 

12.  Occupations 

fishing — oyster  dredges 51 

mining 

salt ■   •     •  53 

coal 54 

petroleum 56 

iron  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 56-57 

manufacturing 59 

pottery,  glass,  etc.  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 

cloth  (P.  B.  C.) 60 

iron  and  steel  (P.  B.) 58 

13.  Product  posters,   showing  products  and  by- 

products (P.) 51-60 


TOPICS   FOR   CO^XRETE   ILLUSTRATION  8 1 

Pages 

14.  Cities,  typical  features,  as  Brooklyn  Bridge, 

sky-scrapers,  etc. 

Famous  buildings .  62-69 

Capital  City  (P.  B.) 67 

Erie  Canal  and  locks  (P.  B.  S.  C.)     .     .     .     .  65 

Southern  States 

15.  Relief  map,   showing  agricultural   processes 

(S.  C.) 


71 


I'lti.  jO.  —  Bi-planc,  BaUlL.-.lii|<,  Clixk;  Derrick.     Sixth  Cirudc.     Humboldt 

School,  St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

16.  Occupations 

cotton  plantation 74~75 

sugar  plantation 75  7^^ 

rice  field 7^^ 

lohacTo  field  (P.  H.  S.  ('.) 77 

17.  Proflurts  in  review  showing  ])r(»(lu("ts  and  by- 

products (P.) 73-f^o 

Charts  showing  increase  in  production  (P.)      .    81-82 

G 


82  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

Pages 

i8.    Cities  typical  features  (P.  E.)       ....  81-90 

19.  Central  States  —  color  map  (P.) 

Relief  map,  showing  location  of  cities  and 

typical  industries  (S.) 92 

20.  Products  and  by-products 93~iii 

corn 95^96 

wheat        96 

cattle 99-101 

lumber 102 

iron 103 

oil 103 

copper  (P.  B.  S.  C.)    .     .  105 

21.  Manufacture  and  Commerce        io6-ii6 

Review  of  manufactured  products 

Types  of  transportation  (P.  B.  S.  C.)   .     .     .  106-116 

Western  States 

22.  Relief  map  showing  cities  and  railroad  lines  (S.)  1 18-122 

23.  Occupations 

mining 

gold 122 

silver 123 

copper 124 

coal  and  oil  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 125 

24.  Lumbering  big  tree  region  (P.  B.  S.  C.)    .     .  125-127 

25.  Agriculture 

methods  of  irrigation  (P.  B.  S.  C.)    .     .     .  129-133 

varieties  of  fruits  (P.  B.) 131-132 

stock  raising  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 133-134 

26.  Transportation 

ships 139-141 

rafts 141 

railroads  (P.  B.  C.) 136 


TOPICS    FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  83 

Pages 

27.  Typical  homes 

Pueblo  Indians 142-143 

Cave  dwellers 143 

Sheep  ranch  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 134 

Noted  features 

28.  Yellowstone  Park  (P.  B.) 143-144 

29.  Big  tree  region  (P.  B.  S.) 127 

30.  Yosemite  Valley  (P.  B.  S.) 145 

31.  Grand  Canyon  of  Colorado  (P.  B.)  ....  145 

32.  Alaska  —  color  map  (P.) 148 

2;^.    Relief  map,  showing  glacier  (S.) 148 

34.  Occupations 

fishing  —  showing  kinds  of  fish     ....  1 50-1 51 

mining  —  placer  mine  (P.  B.  S.)  ....  151-152 

Porto  Rico  and  Cuba 

35.  Relief  maps  (S.) 153 

36.  Color  maps  —  showing  relation  to  continent 

(P.) 153 

37.  Occupations 

sugar  plantation 153 

tobacco  jjlantation  (P.  B.  S.) 153 

fruits  (P.) 153-154 

i8.   Native  house  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 153 

Panama  Canal  Zone 

39.  Canal  and  locks  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 155 

Hawaii  till  I  si  a  wis 

40.  Relief  map  fS.) 158 

41.  Native  houses  (P.  S.  C.) 156 

42.  Population  —  nationalities  (P.) 156 

43.  Products  and  by-products  (P.) 157 


84 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


44 

45 
46 

47 
48 


49. 
50- 


Philippine  Islands 

Pages 

Relief  map  of  Luzon  (S.) 159 

Color  map  of  group  (P.) 159 

Products  and  by-products  (P.)     .....  159 

People  and  houses  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 159-160 

Farming  methods  and  tools  (P.  B.  S.  C.)  .     .  160 

British  Possessions 

Historical  features  (B.) 162 

Relief  map  (S.) 161 


Fig.  31.  —  Station,  Signal  Tower,  and  Train.     Sixth  Grade.     Humboldt  School, 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

51.  Color  map  (P.) 161 

52.  Native  animals  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 163 

53.  Lumbering  (P.  B.  S.) 163 

54.  Fishing  (P.  B.  S.) 164 

55.  Seal  hunting  (P.  B.) 165 

56.  Chart  of  farm  regions  (P.) 165-166 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTR.A.TION  85 

Pages 

57.  Products  (P.) 165-166 

58.  Transportation 

Railways  and  waterways  (P.  S.  C.)       .     .     .     167 

59.  Home  of  Eskimos  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 170 

Mexico 

60.  Historical  features  (B.)       171 

61.  Relief  map,  showing  topical  homes  (S.)     .     .     171-173 

62.  Color  map  (P.) 

Irrigated  fields  (S.) 173 

63.  Products 

methods  of  production I73~i75 

methods  of  manufacture 
methods  of  transportation  (P.  B.) 

64.  Adobe  house  (C.)       174 

65.  Coffee  plantation  (P.  B.  S.) 175-176 

66.  Cities  located  on  relief  map  (S.)       ....  177 

67.  Government  (B.) 175 

Central  America 

68.  Color  map  (P.) 171 

69.  Products  (P.) 177 

West  Indies 

70.  Color  maf)  (V.) 178,  152 

Products 179 

Statistical  review  of  North  America  (P.)   .     .     181-197 

71.  Relative    production    of    different    sections 

shown  in  miniatures  in  proper  propor- 
tion, as  sacks  of  wheat,  baskets  of  corn, 
etc.  (P.  C.) 

Soul/i  America 

72.  Relief  map,  showing  physical  features,  vege- 

tation, occupations,  towns  (S.  C.)      .     .     237 


86 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


73.  Color  charts,  showing 

winds  

rainfall 

temperature 

vegetation — forests,  prairies,  arid  regions 

(P.) 

74.  Animals  (P.  B.  C.) , 


Pages 

214 
211 

238 

238-239 
239-240 


Fig.  32.  —  Well  Sweeps  and  Sun  Dials.     Si.xth  Grade,  Humboldt  School,  St. 

Joseph,  Mo. 

75.  Natives  (P.  B.) 241 

76.  Native  houses  (S.  C.) 247,  246 

77.  Historical  features  (P.  B.)       241 

78.  Countries,  color  map,  showing  outlines  (P.)  .  237 

79.  Products  and  by-products  of  each  (P.)     .     .  244-255 

80.  Cultivation     and     manufacture    of    rubber 

(P.  B.  S.) 244 

81.  Farming  methods  in  contrast  to  United  States 

(P.  S.) 246 

82.  Cultivation  of  cocoa  (P.  B.) 251 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  Sj 

Pages 
8^.   Mining  methods  in  contrast  to  United  States 

(P-  S.) 253 

84.  Cities  —  located  on  color  map  and  on  relief 

map  (P.  S.) 245-255 

85.  Government  of  countries  (B.) 245-253 

General  Geography 

86.  Apparatus  showing  motions  of  earth  (C.)     .  198-199 

87.  Charts  of  zones  (P.) 200-202 

88.  Charts  for  winds  (P.) 206-210 

Charts  for  rains  (P.) 210-217 

(Experiments  in  evaporation,  condensation, 

etc.) 

89.  Charts  for  ocean  currents  (P.) 218-223 

experiments  (C.) 

90.  Charts  for  distribution  of  temperature  (P.)   .  224-226 

91.  Animals  —  by  zones,  by  continents  (P.  B.  C.)  227 

92.  Plants  —  by  zones  (P.) 228 

93.  People  —  charts  for  races  (P.  B.)      ....  231-234 

94.  Religions  of  world  (B.) 233 

95.  Comparisons  of  climate  and  vegetation  in 

hot  country 229 

cold  country 227 

moist  country 228 

dry  country  (S.) 229 

Jiiirope 

g6.   Color  map  showing  countries  (P.)    ....  257 

97.    Chart  maps  showing 

coal  fields 259 

glacial  region 260 

po{)ulation 261 

winds  and  rainfall  (P.) 262 


88  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

* 

British  Isles 

Paces 

98.  Relief  map  (S.) 263 

99.  Color  charts  showing  latitude  in  relation  to 

United  States  (P.) 263 

IOC.   Historical  features  (B.)       263 

loi.    Charts  showing  ' 

winds  and  rainfall 264 

climate  (P.) 264 

102.  Farming  and  farm  products  (P.  B.  S.) .     .     .  265 

103.  Fishing  industry  (P.) 266 

104.  Mining  industries 267 

coal  fields  and  output  (P.) 

tin  and  other  materials  (P.  B.)      .     .     .     .  267 

105.  Manufacturing  interests  (B.) 267 

cotton  and  woolen  goods  (P.) 268 

iron  and  steel  (P.) 269 

106.  Cities  on  relief  map  (S.) 271-274 

107.  Interesting  things  about  London  (P.  B.)  .     .  272 

108.  Country  scene  in  Ireland  (P.  S.)       ....  270 
Irish  jaunting  car  (C.) 

109.  Cultivation  of  flax  and  manufacture  of  Unen 

(P.  B.  S.  C.) 271 

no.   Typical  scenes  in  Scotland  (P.  S.)    ....  274 

111.  Scotch  costume  on  doll  (C.) 

112.  Government  of  Great  Britain  (B.)   .     .     .     .  276 

113.  Review  of  products  (P.) 277 

114.  Famous  places  and  people  of  Great  Britain 

(P.  B.)       2,6 


Holland 

115.  Sand  map  showing  dikes  (S.) 277 

116.  Story  of  the  dike  building  (B.) 277-278 


1 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE    ILLUSTRATION  89 

Pages 

117.  People  of  Holland  (P.  B.) 278 

Costumes  on  dolls  (C.) 

Houses  on  sandmap  (S.  C.) 
Dog  cart  (C.) 

118.  Occupations  (B.) 278 

Farming  (P.  S.) 

Manufacturing  (P.  C.) 

Use  of  windmills  (P.  S.) 279 

119.  Commerce  (P.  B.) 280 

120.  Products  (P.) 270-280 

121.  Famous  places,  people,  and  pictures  (P.  B.)  .  280 

Belgium 

122.  Historic  features  (P.  B.) 281 

123.  Products  (P.) 282 

France 

124.  Relief  map  with  cities  (S.) 283-284 

125.  Historic  features  (P.  B.) 283 

126.  Products  (P.) 284 

127.  Vineyards  (P.  S.)       284 

128.  Processes  in  silk  manufacture  (P.  B.)   .     .     .  285-286 

129.  The  city  of  Paris  (P.  B.) 287-288 

130.  Government  of  France  (B.) 290 

Spain 

131.  Historic  features  (B.) 290 

132.  Rehef  ma|)  (S.) 291 

133.  Occuj)ations 292 

grazing  (P.) 292 

mining  (P.) 292 

134.  Customs  —  games  (P.  B.)  .     .  ....  293 

ox-cart  (P.  C.)        292 

135.  Cities  on  relief  map  (S.) 294-295 


90  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Scandinavia 

Pages 

136.  Relief  map  (S.) 295 

Color  map  (P.) 295 

137.  Chart  showing  relative  population  of  coun- 

tries (P.) 295,424 

138.  Historic  features  (B.) 296 


Fig.  3j.  —  Crane  Raising  a  Submarine.     Sixth  Grade.     Humboldt 
School,  St.  Joseph,  Mo.  ' 

139.  People  —  dress  (P.  B.  C.) 296 

houses  (P.  S.  C.) 296 

140.  Industries  —  lumbering 297 

fishing 297 

mining 298 

dairying  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 299 

141.  Compare  Danish  farms  with  those  of  Western 

United  States  (P.  B.  S.) 299 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  91 

Russia 

Pages 

142.  Comparative  size  (P.) 302 

with  Europe 
with  own  state  * 

143.  Relief  map '    .     .     .     .     256 

with  variety  of  vegetation  (S.) 
Tv'pical  homes  (C.) 
Tj-pical  occupations  (P.  S.) 

144.  Government  (B.) 304 

145.  Occupations 

lumbering 304 

farming  —  show  methods 304 

mining  —  compare  volume  (P.  S.)     •     •     •  305 

146.  Interesting  features  (B.) 

costumes  (C.) 304 

vehicles  (C.) 307 

147.  Products  (P.) 304-307 

148.  Cities  —  on  relief  map  (S.) 306-307 

149.  Famous  buildings  (P.  B.) 306 

German  Empire 

150.  Color  map  of  Central  Europe  (P.)    ....     308 

151.  Charts  comparing  Germany  with  other  coun- 

tries in  size  and  population  (P.)     .  .  .  308 

152.  Historic  features  and  governmint  (B.)  .  .  308 

153.  Charts  for  rainfall  and  temperature  (P.)  .  .  311 

154.  Industries 

lumbering  fP.  S.) 311 

farming  (P.  S.)       312 

mining  (P.) 312 

manufacturing 313 

toys 313 

textiles  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 313 


92  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Pages 

155.  Products  in  review  (P.) 311-313 

156.  Government  and  education  (B.)       ....     314 

157.  Transportation 

German  and  American  railways  compared 

(P.B.C.) 314 

158.  Cities  —  (travel  books)  (B.) 315-317 

159.  Famous  buildings  and  scenery  (P.  B.)  .     .     .  317 

160.  Typical  scenes  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 317 

(as  Castle  on  Rhine) 

Switzerland 

161.  Charts    showing    variety    in    vegetation    in 

mountains  (P.) 319 

162.  Glaciers  and  their  work  (P.  B.) 320 

163.  Typical  scenes  in  home  life,  houses  and  envi- 

ronment, costumes  (B.  C.) 320 

164.  Industries 320 

Manufacturing  (P.  B.) 

(showing  various  products) 

165.  Transportation  —  tunnels,  etc.  (P.  B.  S.  C.)  .     322 

166.  Famous  scenery  (P.  B.) 322 

Italy 

167.  Relief  map  (S.) 323,308 

168.  Charts  comparing  area  and  population  (P.)  .    323 

169.  People  and  government  (B.) 323 

170.  Charts  showing  location  in  zones  for  compar- 

ing climates  (P.) 323 

171.  Industries 

agriculture  and  irrigation 324 

farm  products  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 325 

172.  Manufactures 

silk  industry .     325 

sponge  fishing  (P.  B.) 325 

/ 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION 


93 


173- 
174. 


175- 
176. 


Cities  —  showTi  on  sandmap  (S.)      .     .     . 
Story  of  Pompeii  (B.) 

Naples  and  Vesuvius  (P.  B.) 

Art  treasures  of  Italy  (B.) 

Famous  buildings  (P.  C.) 

model  of  Colosseum,  etc 

Venice  —  on  sand  map  (P.  S.)     •     .     .     . 
Review  of  products  and  manufactures  (P.) 


Pages 
326 

326 
326 
328 
328 

330 


Tig.  J4.  —  A  Derrick .      I'iftli  (Iradi-  Hoys.     M e Kinky  Si liool, 
St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

A  ustria-II  iingary 

177.  Color  map  (P.) 331-308 

178.  Charts  for  area  and  poj)ulation,  rainfall  and 

tcmjHTaturc  (P.) 331 

179.  People  (P.  B.) 331-332 

houses  and  costumes  (S.  C.) 

180.  Government  (B.) 332 

181.  Industries  —  various  scenes  on  sandtal)le  (S.)     332 

182.  Products  and  manufactures  (P.)       ....     335 

183.  Cities  —  on  color  maj)  (I'.) 


94  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Balkan  Peninsula 

Pages 

184.  Color  map  (P.) 335,  308 

185.  Charts  comparing  area  and  population  with 

other  countries  (P.) 335 

186.  Charts    showing     climate     and     vegetation 

(P-) 335 

187.  Peoples  (P.  B.) 335 

costumes  (B.  C.) 

customs  (B.) 

religions  (B.) 336 

188.  Industries  —  products     and     manufactures 

(P.  B.)       s35-ss^ 

189.  Governments  (B.) 336 

190.  Historic  features  (P.  B.) 337 

Story  of  Greece  (B.) 338 

191.  Famous  buildings  in  Greece  (model  Acropo- 

lis) (C.) 339 

192.  Current  events  (P.  B.) 

193.  Animals  of  Europe  (P.  C.) 301 

194.  Review  products  of  Europe  (P.) 

Asia 

195.  Charts  comparing 

area  and  population 341,424 

rainfall  and  climate  (P.) 343,  346 

196.  Color  map  (P.) 341 

197.  Charts  —  showing  location  in  zones  (P.) 

showing  vegetation  (P.)       343 

198.  Animals  of  Asia  (P.  B.) 344 

elephants  at  work 344 

199.  People 

historic  features  (B.)        345-346 

modern  progress  (B.) 347 


TOPICS   FOR    CONCRETE    ILLUSTR-\TIOX  95 

Turkish  Empire 

Pages 

200.  Color  map  showing  extent  (P.) 347 

201.  Holy  Land  —  relief  map  (S.) 349 

ancient  and  present  customs  (B.)      .     .     .  349 

products  (P.) 348 

Arabian  Peninsula  and  Persia 

202.  Products  (P.) 351 

203.  Government  (B.) 351 

typical  scenes  (S.) 
tent  home  (P.  C.) 

caravan  (P.  S.) 343 

rug  weavers  (P.) 347 

Siberia  ' 

204.  Plant  and  animal  life  (P.)       352 

205.  Government  and  people  (B.) 353 

Imiia 

206.  Relief  niaj)  (S.) 354 

207.  Rainfall  chart  (P.) 354 

Population  chart  (P.) 355 

208.  Historic  features  and  religion  (B.)    ....  355    . 

government  (B.) 355-35^ 

209.  Products  (P.) 356 

tea  i)Iantation  (S.) 357 

lumbering  with  ele[)hants  (P.)       ....  359 

210.  Wagons  and  Ijuffalo  carts  (C.) 360 

China 

211.  Relief  map  —  with  wall  (S.) 361,340 

212.  Products  (P.) 365 

213.  Government  and  religion  (B.) 364 


96  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Pages 

214.  Houses  and  costumes  (P.  C.)       363-364 

215.  Vehicles  (C.) 363 

216.  Methods  of  farming  and  irrigation  (P.  S.)      .  364 

silk  culture  (P.  B.) 365 

tea  culture  (P.  S.)       365 

Japan 

217.  Relief  map  (S.) 367,340 

218.  Color  map  (P.) •  .     .     .     .  367 

219.  History  and  Government  (B.) 368 

220.  Industries  (P.) 369 

silk  culture  (P.  B.) 369 

tea  culture  (P.  B.) 369 

pottery  (C.)       370 

221.  Cities  —  on  relief  map  (S.) 37o~37i 

Africa 

222.  Relief  map  (S.) 372 

223.  Color  map  (P.) 373 

224.  Charts  showing  zones,  rainfall  and  climate  (P.)  374 

225.  Animals  (P.  C.) 375 

226.  People  —  charts  showing  population  (P.)       .  376 

227.  Homes  and  customs  of  natives  (S.  C.)       .     .  376 

228.  Foreign  owners  —  chart  (P.) 377 

229.  Scenes  in  Sahara  desert  (S.) 378 

230.  Egypt 379-380 

Pyramids  (B.  S.) 
Nile  (B.  S.) 
Sphinx  (B.  S.) 
History  (B.) 

231.  Arab  —  schools,  religion  (B.) 383-384 

232.  Products  of  Africa  (P.)       384-385 

233.  The  English  and  Dutch  in  S.  Africa  (B.)  .     .  384 

234.  Transportation  (P.  S.  C.) 386 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  97 

Pages 

235.  People  of  Central  Africa  (P.) 387 

236.  Review  of  products  (P.) 388-389 

Australia  ami  Isla>ids 

237.  Relief  map  of  Australia  (S.) 391 

238.  Color  map  of  Australia  and  Islands  (P.)   .     .  391 

239.  Native  animals  (P.) 392-  393 

240.  People  and  government  (B.) 392-397 

241.  Charts  showing  population  (P.) 394 

242.  Products  (P.) 395^396 

243.  Typical  native  houses  (P.  C.) 397 

HISTORY 

Suggested  list  of  topics  drawn  from  Tappan's  "Our  Coun- 
try's Story,"  with  one  or  more  forms  of  illustration  suited  to 
fifth-grade  pupils.  The  letters  indicate  the  form  of  illustra- 
tion.' 


PAGES 


1.  Early  ideas  of  the  world  (P.  H.) 1-2 

2.  Methods  of  travel   in   lilleenlh  century 

(P.  B.  S.  C.) 2-3 

3.  Armor  and  weapons  in  fifteenth  century 

(P.  H.  C.) 3-18 

4.  Early  maps  (P.) 4-5 

5.  Models  of  early  shii)s  (C.)       2-6 

6.  Routes  of  Columbus'  voyages  (S.)    ....  8-10 

7.  Scenes  in  New  World  (S.) 10-11 

Explorers  and  routes 

8.  Cahots'  route  (S.) 13 

9.  Magellan's  route  (S.) 17-18 

ID.    I)c  Leon's  route  (S.) if) 

'P — Poster,  including  all  maps  and  charts;  B  —  Illustralcd  bof)k- 
Ict  ;  S  -Sanrltablc  rcprc^cntalidn  ;  C  —  Construction  in  various  ma- 
terials, including  clay  m«xleling. 

H 


98 


II 

12 

14 

15 


.  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Pages 

Cartier's  route  (S.) 20-21 

Maps  showing  all  explorations  (P.  S.) 

Settlements  in  Florida  (S.) 24-25 

Raleigh's  Colonies  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 26-27 

Costumes     in     time     of    Queen     Elizabeth 

(P.  B.  C.)  .     . 27 


Fig.  35.  —  A  Panama  Canal  and  an  Inclined  Railway.  One  tier  of  locks  oper- 
ated. Works  from  an  old  dock  operated  the  railway,  fifth  Grade.  Co- 
lumbia, Mo.     (See  List  F.) 


16.  Vehicles,  same  (P.  B.  C.)    .     . 

17.  Indian  homes  and  weapons 

canoe 
cradle 
cooking  utensils  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 


29 


34-41 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  99 

Pages 

18.  Story  of  John  Smith  (B.) 43 

19.  Chart  of  Virginia  Colony  (P.) 43-49 

20.  Scenes  in  Virginia  Colony  (P.  S.) 

21.  Story  of  Pilgrims  (B.) 52 

22.  Mayflower,  pictures  (P.) 

models  (C.) 155 

23.  Pilgrims  in  America 

houses 

costumes 

furniture,  etc.  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 55-60 

24.  Puritans  —  story,  journey  (P.  B.  S.  C.)     .     .  63 

25.  Quakers  —  dress,  habits  (P.  B.) 67 

26.  Indians  in-iSTew  England  (P.  B.  S.)  .     .     .     .  69 

27.  Blockhouse  (C.) 73 

28.  Story  of  Roger  Williams  (P.  B.  S.)  .     .     .     .  75-76 

29.  New  England  stockade  (P.  S.  C.)     .     ,     .     .  81 

30.  New  England  schools  (B.) 66-72 

31.  Early  New  England  customs  (P.  B.  S.)     .     .  83-88 

32.  Dutch  settlements  and  customs  (P.  B.  S.  C.)  89-98 
;i;^.   Story  of  William    Penn   and   Quaker   settle- 
ments (P.  B.  S.) 99-104 

34.  Maryland  plantations  (P.  S.) 105-107 

35.  Settlements  in  Southern  Colonies  (P.  S.)  .     .     109-114 

36.  Review  charts  of  English  settlements  (P.) 

37.  Relief  maps  review  (S.) 

38.  French  explorations 

story  and  sand  maj)  (B.  S.) 114 

39.  Story  of  war  with  French  (with  "  Evangeline  "  ) 

fB.  S.) 1 19-128 

40.  Colonial  customs 

houses 

costumes 

vehicles,  etc.  (P.  B.  C.) 129-139 


lOO  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Paces 

41.  Early  events  of  Revolution 

people,  weapons,  places  (P.  B.)     ....  141-153 
famous  pictures  of  Revolution  (P.  B.) 

42.  Story  of  George  Washington  (P.  B.)     .     .     .  154 

43.  Charts  of  early  battles  (P.) 141 

44.  Events  of  Revolution  by  years  (P.)       .     .     .  154 

45.  Surrender  of  Cornwallis  (P.  S.) 167 

46.  Famous  people  of  Revolutionary  times  (P.  B.)  154-170 

47.  Story  of  Franklin  (B.) 163 

48.  Invention  of  cotton  gin  (P.  B.  C.)    .     .     .     .  173 

49.  Fulton's  steamboat  (P.  B.  C.) 183 

50.  Emigrant  train  for  West  (P.  B.  S.)       ...  185 

51.  Stagecoach  in  1825  (P.  C.) 188 

52.  Early  chaise  (P.  C.) 189 

53.  Early  freight  wagon  (P.  C.) 189 

54.  Erie  Canal  with  locks  (P.  B.  S.  C.)       .     .     .  190 

55.  Early  railroad  train  (P.  C.) 191 

56.  Famous  statesmen  of  early  history  (P.  B.)    .  192 

57.  Noted  writers  of  early  fiistory  (P.  B.)  .     .     .  194 

58.  Invention  of  telegraph  (P.  B.  C.)     .     .     .     .  199 

59.  Discovery  of  gold  in  California  (P.  B.  S.)      .  202-203 

60.  Scenes  in  North  and  South  before  war,  in  con- 

trast (P.  S.) 

61.  Story  of  Lincoln  (P.  B.  S.) 208 

62.  Story  of  Southern  leaders  (P.  B.)      .     .     .     .  210 

63.  Model  of  Monitor  (C.) 215 

64.  Story  of  U.  S.  Grant  (B.) 222 

65.  Review  of  Civil  War,  in  pictures  (P.)  .     .     .  208-228 

66.  Famous  buildings 

White  House 
Capitol,  etc.  (P.  B.) 

67.  Laying  Atlantic  cable  (P.  B.) 230 

68.  Events  of  Cuban  war  (P.  B.) 241 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE    ILLUSTR.\TION 


lOI 


I02  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Pages 

69.  Book  of  our  Presidents  (B.) 154-250 

70.  Charts  showing  expansion  (P.) 

Suggested  list  of  topics  drawn  from  Gordy's  "History  of 
the  United  States,"  with  one  or  more  forms  of  illustration 
suited  to  sixth-  and  seventh-grade  pupils.  The  letters  indi- 
cate the  form  of  illustration.' 

Pages 

71.  Review  of  voyages  of  Columbus  (P.  B.)    .     .         1-8 

72.  Charts  of  Norse  voyages  (P.) 11 

73.  Review  of  Spanish  explorations  (P.)     .     ,     .       13-18 

74.  Review  of  English  explorations  (P.  S.)      .     .       20-25 

75.  Review  of  Virginia  Colony 

Color  maps  and  pictures  (P.  S.) 28-40 

76.  Review  of  Pilgrims  and  Puritans  (P.  S.)   .     .  43-60 

77.  New  England  and  Virginia  in  contrast  (S.)    .  28-43 

78.  Colonial  house,  etc.  (C.) 

79.  Review  of  Dutch  in  America  (P.)     ....  63-68 

80.  Review  of  Quakers  in  America  (P.)       .     .     .  68-72 

81.  Indian  customs  (P.  B.) 75^83 

canoes,  snowshoes  (C.) 
weapons,  baskets  (C.) 
money,  totems,  mounds  (C.) 

82.  Review  of  French  explorations  (P.)       ...       87 

83.  Noted  Frenchmen  of  America  (P.  B.)  .     ,     .       89-92 

84.  French  settlements  (P.) 87-98 

85.  Braddock's  defeat  (B.) 98 

86.  Story  of  Acadia  (B.) 99 

87.  Story  of  Wolfe  and  Quebec  (P.  B.  S.)  .     .     .  loi 

88.  New  England  colonial  life  (P.) 106 

occupations  (P.) 106 

'  P  —  Poster,  including  all  maps  and  charts ;  B  —  Illustrated  book- 
let; S  —  Sandtable  representation;  C  —  Construction  in  various  ma- 
terials, including  clay  modeling. 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  103 

Pages 
Colonial  customs  {continued) 

education  —  religion  (B.) 106-109 

methods  of  punishment  (S.) 109 

home  Ufe  and  amusements  (P.  S.  C.)     .     .  no 

89.  Southern  colonial  life  —  as  above  (P.  B.  S.  C.)  1 1  i-i  13 

90.  Middle  colonial  life — as  above  (P.  B.  S.  C.)  113-117 

91.  Spinning  wheels  (C.) 113-117 

92.  Modes  of  travel  in  Colonies  (P.  B.  C.)      .     .  117 

93.  Charts  showing  various  forms  of  government 

in  Colonies  (P.)       118-122 

94.  Charts  showing  causes  of  Revolution  (P.)      .  126 

95.  Poster  review  of  events,  leading  to  Revolu- 

tion —  as 

Boston  Tea  Party 139 

Boston  Massacre,  etc.  (P.  B.) 

96.  Map  showing  early  movements  of  troops  (P.)  142-143 

97.  Minutcman  in  uniform  (P.  C.) i44 

98.  Famous  buildings  of  Revolution  (P.  B.)    .     .  130-153 

99.  Chart    showing    Washington's    camps    and 

marches  (P.)       14S 

100.    Scenes  showing  famous  events,  as 

Washington  crossing  the  Delaware  (P.  S.)     .  154 

Army  at  Valley  Forge  (P.  S.)       i()4 

Id.    Sandmap  for  Hudson  River  Campaign  (S.)    .  157 

102.  P^vents  leading  to  capture  of  Hurgoyne  (P.)  157   163 

103.  VVeapons  and  uniforms  of  Revolutionary  sol- 

diers (P.  C.j '^'« 

104.  Story  of  Franklin  (B.) i^)-' 

105.  Story  of  (ieorge  Rogers  Clark  (B.)  .     .     .     .  1O9170 

106.  Story  of  John  Paul  Jones  (B.) i?-^ 

107.  Pictorial  review  of  ships  of  the  Revolution 

(P.  B.) 172 

108.  Chart  of  battles  in  South  (P.) i74  i77 


I04  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Pages 

IC9.    Story  of  Benedict  Arnold  (B.) 177 

no.    Story  of  Cornwallis  (B.) 179 

111.  Battle  of  Yorktown  (S.) 181 

112.  Relief  map  of  Colonies,  at  close  of  war  (S.)  182 

113.  Color  map  —  same  (P.) 182 

114.  Scenes  showing  home  conditions  at  close  of 

war  (P.  S.) 196 

115.  Noted  generals  of  Revolution  (B.) 

116.  Review  chart  of  chief  battles  (P.)    ....     148-181 

117.  Color   map   showing  colonial  possessions  at 

close  of  war  (P.) 

118.  Relief  map  showing  colonial  possessions  at 

close  of  war  (S.) 

119.  Important  people  of  Revolution  (P.  B.) 

120.  Home  conditions  at  close  of  war  (P.  S.) .     .  197 

121.  Modes  of  travel  —  stage  to  railroad  (P.  B.  C.)  198 

122.  Methods  of  carrying  mails  (P.  B.  S.)    .     .     .  198 

123.  Story  of  Alexander  Hamilton  (B.)    ....  200-202 

124.  Story  of  Thomas  Jefferson  (B.) 200-215 

125.  Invention  of  cotton  gin  (P.  B.  C  )    .     .     .     .  204 

126.  Chart  of  political  parties  (P.) 209 

127.  Scenes  in  pioneer  life  (P.  B.  S.) 216 

128.  Methods  of  weaving  (P.  B.) 218 

cotton  (C.) 
wool  (C.) 
Hnen  (C.) 

129.  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition  (P.  B.  C.)     .     .     221 

130.  Chart  of  causes  of  War  of  181 2  (P.)      .     .     .     229 

131.  Troubles  with  Indians  (P.  B.) 228-235 

132.  Story  of  Commodore  Perry  (B.)       ....     232 

133.  Writing  of  "  Star  Spangled  Banner  "  (B.)      .     234 

134.  Color  chart  for  growth  of  territory  —  Florida 

(P.) 239 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION 


105 


a 

"o 

U 


O 


> 

a? 

3 

o 

a 
•a 

_o 
"3 
U 


Io6  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

Pages 

135.  Map  of  National  Road  (P.  S.) 242 

136.  Slory  of  Henry  Clay  (B.) 244 

137.  Erie  Canal  (P.  B.  S.  C.) 245 

138.  Great   statesmen  —  Calhoun,   Webster,    etc. 

(P.  B.) 253 

139.  The  first  railroads,  showing  types  of  cars  used 

(P.  B.  S.  C.) 257-260 

140.  Early  steamboats  (P.  B.  C.) 264 

141.  Invention  of  telegraph  (P.  B.  C.)     ....  267 

142.  Representation  of  contrasting  conditions  in 

North  and  South  (P.  S.)       272-292 

143.  Chart  of  Mexican  War  (P.) 274 

144.  Discovery  of  gold  in  California  (P.  B.  S.  C.)  279 

145.  Chart  of  route  to  California  (P.  S.)       ...  280 

146.  Modes  of  travel  to  West  (P.)       282 

147.  Statesmen  in  the  slavery  struggle  (B.)       .     .  290 

148.  Chart  of  causes  of  Civil  War  (P.)     ....  275-297 

149.  Story  of  Abraham  Lincoln  (P.  B.)    ....  299 

150.  Model  of  Monitor  (C.) 312 

151.  Story  of  U.  S.  Grant  (B.) 315 

152.  Charts  and  relief  maps  of  chief  battles  (P.  S.)  316 

153.  Heroes  of  Civil  War  (P.  B.) 

154.  Story  of  Robert  E.  Lee  (B.) 324 

155.  Story  of  David  Farragut  (B.) 343 

156.  Story  of  Sanitary  Commission  and  Red  Cross 

Association  (B.) 350 

157.  Story  of  Ku  Klux  Klans  (B.) 361 

158.  Building  Eads  bridge  at  St.  Louis  (P.  B.  C.)  366 

159.  Sugar,  and  cotton  plantations  (P.  B.  S.)    .     .  368 

160.  Western  mining  camps  (P.  B.  S.)     .     .     .     .  374 

161.  Modern  farming  methods  in  West  (P.  B.  S.  C.)  376 

162.  Immigrants  of  Western  coast  (compare  with 

Eastern)  (P.  B.) 377 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  107 


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Woolen 
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Fig.  38.  —  Booklets.    Training  Class.    Missouri  University. 


Pacics 


163.  Chart  of  transcoiitiiuiilal   railroad  (P.)     .     .     .^78 

164.  Artesian       well      and       irrigation      .system 

(P.  B.  S.  C.) 379 

165.  Color  chart  of  I-'orcst    Reserves,   for  United 

States  (P.) •     ...     380 


I08  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Pages 

i66.  Color  chart  of  timber  for  United  States  (P.) 

167.  Trans-Atlantic  cable  (P.  B.) 382 

168.  Color  chart  of  Alaskan  Purchase  (P.)  •     •     •  384 

169.  Invention  of  typewriter  (P.  B.) 385 

170.  Invention  of  telephone  (P.  B.  C.)     ....  386 

171.  Invention  of  sewing  machine  (P.  B.)     .     .     .  387 

172.  Centennial  and  other  Expositions  (P.  B.)       .  388 

173.  Brooklyn  Bridge  (P.  B.) 394 

174.  Models  of  bridges  (C.) 

175.  Gift  of  Statue  of  Liberty  (P.  B.)      ....  396 

176.  Events  of  war  with  Spain  (P.) 411 

177.  Heroes  of  Spanish  War  (P.  B.) 411-413 

178.  Color  map  of  Philippines  (P.) 422 

179.  Building  Panama  Canal  (P.  B.  S.  C.)  .     .     .  423 

180.  Literary  heroes  of  United  States  (P.  B.)  .     .  428 

181.  Review  of  administrations,  giving  events  of 

each  in  pictures  (P.) 

SUGGESTED    OUTLINE    FOR    ILLUSTRATIVE    METHODS    IN 
THE    STUDY   OF    SOUTH   AMERICA 

Text:    Tarr    and    McMurry,    Book    II,   pp.    231-255.^ 
Carpenter's  South  America  (revised  ed.). 

General  Facts 

1.  Model  Relief  map  in  damp  sand. 

Show  coast  line 
mountain  ranges 
rivers 
forests 

prairies  and  plains 
arid  regions 

2.  Color  charts  for  which  printed  or  hectographed  outline 

maps  are  used. 

'See  explanatory  note,  page  114. 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  109 

Show  location  of  South  America  in  zones 
direction  of  winds 
relation  to  ocean  currents 
rainfall 
temperature 

forests 
vegetation'  prairies 

.  arid  regions 

(For  suggestions  see  figures  303  and  334,  Tarr  and 

McMurry.) 

The  making  of  the  maps  may  be  group  projects, 
each  feature  of  the  sandmap  being  assigned  to  a 
small  group.  Each  color  map  may  be  assigned  to 
two  or  three  pupils  working  together.  By  this 
method  the  pupils  will  check  each  other's  work. 
For  example,  the  ri\'er  committee  will  have  dif^- 
culty  in  putting  in  rivers  on  the  sandmap  if  the 
mountain  rommiltce  has  done  poor  work. 

3.    Posters  —  either  mounted  pictures  or  sketches. 
Showing  wild  animals 
domestic  animals 
birds,  insects,  reptiles 

Counlrks 

1.  Trace  the  boundaries  of  the  several  countries  on  the 
reUef  map. 

2.  Make  iiidixidual  color  majjs  of  (ontinent  sliowiiig  coun- 
tries, using  printed  or  heclogra|)hcd  outline  majjs. 

3.  Make  individual  color  maps  of  each  country  or  group 
of  small  countries. 

4.  If  lime  is  allowefl  for  an  rxhaustive  study,  make  relief 
maps  of  the  various  sections  on  the  sandtable. 


no  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

5.  Study  the  productive  possibilities  of  the  countries  by 
means  of  charts,  showing  rainfall,  drainage,  temperature,  etc. 

Products 

Make  posters  showing  products  and  by-products.  These 
posters  should  be  individual  work,  each  pupil  covering  the 
entire  field,  as  a  method  of  study.  The  posters  may  be 
planned  in  two  ways. 

1.  By  countries  —  each  poster  or  series  of  posters  show- 

ing the  productions  of  a  single  country. 

2.  Byproducts  —  each  poster  showing  a  single  product 

with  its  by-products,  and  methods  of  cultivation 
and  manufacture. 

For  example:  Rubber 

methods  of  cultivation 
methods  of  manufacture 
things  made  of  rubber 
rubber-producing  districts 

Industries 

1.  Sandtable  illustration  of  most  typical  industries  and 

those  least  familiar  to  us,  such  as, 
rubber  making 
coffee  growing 
banana  culture 
cocoa  culture 

2.  Posters.     Illustrate  the  chief  occupations  and  indus- 

tries of  each  section  or  country  in  a  series  of 
posters  on  one  of  two  plans. 

A.  Let  country  be  the  unit  and  show  chief  industries 

of  that  country,  as,  The  Industries  of  Brazil. 

B.  Let  the  industry  be  the  unit  and  show  its  nature 

and  extent. 


TOPICS   FOR  CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION  III 


*► 

iBficn^ 

i^^"^^ 

1  ■  W^ 

/ 


ig^rrHEffiffg 


/T  IT  W    ® 


!•  10.  ig.  —  Studies  in  Transportation.     Twcnty-fivc-minute  Sketches  in 
firushworlc.    Fourth  Grade.     Cuiumbia,  Mu. 


112 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


This  may  be  made  indi\idual  work  for  each  pupil, 
the  topics  being  so  distributed  that  the  assembled 
results  will  bring  out  all  the  points  under  both  heads. 
Children  learn  much  in  explaining  their  respective 
projects  to  each  other. 


Fig.  40.  —  Pose  Studies  in  Peasant  Costumes  Correlated  with  Geography  of 
Europe.     Si.xth  Grade.     Columbia,  Mo. 


II 

Collect  samples  of  woods,  minerals,  vegetable 
fibers,  grasses,  etc. 

Excellent  prepared  exhibits  of  various  products 
are  to  be  had  for  reference  purposes.  These  do  not, 
however,  create  the  interest  aroused  in  a  single 
sample  brought  in  by  a  member  of  the  class.     We 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTR.A.TION  II3 

prize  that  which  costs  us  effort.  After  trying  to 
find  suitable  samples  themselves,  the  children  will 
better  appreciate  the  value  of  the  prepared  exhibit. 
Make  models  of  tools  of  especial  interest. 
Contrast  either  by  poster  pictures  or  by  modeling 
or  by  both  —  the  difference  in  tools  and  methods 
used  by  primitive  tribes  and  the  more  progressive 
sections.  Seek  the  reasons  for  the  difference  and  its 
effect. 

Make  comparisons  between  South  America  and 
other  countries  in  volume  of  production  and  com- 
merce. 
For  example: 
Make  co(Tee-pot  to  represent  amount  of  cofTee  grown  in 
South  America/,  another  for  coffee  grown  elsewhere, 
another  for  coiTee  shipped  to  United  States. 
Make  wheat  sack  to  represent  size  of  wheat  crop  in  South 
America,  another  to  represent  size  of  wheat  crop  in 
United  States,  another  to  represent  size  of  wheat  crop 
elsewhere. 
Mea.sure  and  cut  out  pieces  of  cotton  cloth,  woolen  cloth, 
etc.;  to  represent  the  volume  and  value  of  these  industries 
compared  with  other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  People 

I.   Let  class  make  sandtahle  illustrations  to  show  interest- 
ing types  of  homi'  life,  iik  hiding 
houses 

cooking  utensils 
furniture 
clothing 
vehicles 


114  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

2.  Show  same  items  in  individual  posters. 

3.  Show  typical  methods  of  travel  by  models,  by  posters, 

or  by  l)oth. 

Government  and  History.  —  Each  country  should 
form  the  subject  of  an  illustrated  booklet  containing 
a  description  of  the  conditions  pecuhar  to  that 
country,  with  pictures  of  its  important  buildings, 
famous  people,  important  commercial  and  industrial 
features,  form  of  government,  etc.,  summing  up 
what  has  been  learned  in  the  general  reading  and 
study.     Each  pupil  should  write  upon  one  country. 

Explanatory  Note.  —  The  foregoing  outline  follows 
the  order  of  the  Tarr  and  McMurry  text  and  pre- 
supposes a  previous  reading  of  a  description  of  the 
country  such  as  is  found  in  Carpenter's  "  South 
America."  Where  such  previous  work  has  been 
'omitted,  the  writer  would  prefer  to  reverse  the  order 
and  introduce  the  subject  by  a  study  of  home  life 
and  industrial  occupations  accompanied  by  abundant 
concrete  illustration.  Such  an  introduction  would 
tend  to  awaken  a  personal  interest  not  only  in  the 
people  but  in  their  environment  also,  as  an  explana- 
tion of  the  contrasts  between  their  lives  and  our  own, 
and  would  make  a  later  systematic  study  of  the 
general  facts  more  vital  than  it  is  when  pursued  in  a 
formal  fashion. 

The  projects  suggested  in  the  preceding  outhne 
might  be  carried  out,  perhaps  with  increased  interest, 
in  the  order  suggested  in  the  following  brief  outline, 


TOPICS   FOR   CONCRETE   ILLUSTRATION 


115 


Il6  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

which  is  based  upon  the  idea  that  the  study  of  a 
country  should  be  approached  through  its  most 
interesting  feature,  namely,  the  people  and  their 
habits  which  form  a  contrast  to  our  own.  This  will 
include  home  and  industrial  life.  The  animal  life  of 
a  country  is  also  of  intense  interest.  The  pupil's 
interest  may  be  tested  by  the  parts  of  his  text  which 
he  reads  on  his  own  initiative  before  lessons  are 
assigned. 

Brief  outline : 

Home  Life 

Houses,  utensils,  costumes,  religious  customs 

Studied  through  pictures,  descriptions,  and  models 
Industrial  Life 

Farming,  —  crops,  tools,  machines 

Mineral  and  forest  products,  —  collections  of  samples 

Animals,  —  posters  and  pictures 

Charts  showing  comparative  values 
Physical  Features 

Contour  maps  in  damp  sand  and  dough 

Vegetation  and  rainfall  charts 
Commerce 

Chief  cities,  harbors,  railroads,  located  on  maps 

Discuss  reasons  for  growth  of  cities  at  certain  points 
and  relation  to  trade  routes 
Countries 

Boundaries,  physical  features,  industries 
Government 

Form  of  government 

Schools  and  educational  standing 

Chief  historical  events 


CHAPTER   IV 

LISTS   OF   PROIECTS    CARRIED   OUT   BY 
VARIOUS   TEACHERS 

A  QUESTION  is  frequently  raised  as  to  the  amount 
of  illustrative  work  desirable  in  any  one  class.  Each 
of  the  following  lists  shows  the  projects  carried  out 
by  one  teacher  during  one  year,  at  the  time  these 
special  studies  were  in  progress.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  hsts  \ary  greatly  in  length.  The  only  rule 
to  be  laid  down  for  the  use  of  illustrative  projects 
is  that  they  should  be  used  when  they  add  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  study  in  progress.  Much  depends 
upon  the  teacher's  abihty  to  guide  the  work  into 
profitable  channels  and  to  inhibit  any  tendency 
toward  purposeless  playing  with  materials.  Mere 
making  for  the  sake  of  making  is  a  waste  of  time. 
It  is  im])ossible  to  lay  too  much  i'mj)hasis  upon  the 
imj)ortan(e  of  the  thought  xalues  to  be  gained 
through  illustrative  projects. 

List  A,  Gkadk  Five 
History 

I.    Serifs  of  [wslcrs,  illustralinj;  story  of  Columbus. 
11.    S;iiuh;il)Ic  ilhistralioii  for  Daiiit-I   Hooiu'.     Conil)iuc'd 
with  study  of  gcogra[)hy  of  Mississippi  Valley. 

"7 


Il8  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

III.  Sandlable  illustration  showing  life  of  Pilgrims,  with 

cabins,  costumes,  etc. 
rV.    Sandtable  illustration  for  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition, 

showing  physical  features  of  region  and  important 

events  of  journey. 
In  connection  with  reading  — 

V.   Sandtable  illustrating  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe. 
VI.   Series  of  booklets  on  Longfellow. 

Geography 

I.   Sandtable  and  construction  showing  Panama  Canal, 

with  locks,  steam  shovel,  and  railroad. 
II.    Sandtable  illustration  of  gold  mine  in  California,  show- 
ing placer  method,  figures  with  cradles  and  j>cCns. 
in.  Series  of  booklets  on  birds  of  United  States.     Indi- 
vidual. 

IV.  Series  of  booklets  on  South  America.     Individual. 

The  booklets  and  posters  in  this  series  were  made 
during  study  periods  as  regular  class  work.  The 
sandtable  illustrations  were  made  mostly  out  of 
regular  class  hours.  See  List  B  by  same  teacher 
in  following  year. 

List  B,  Grade  Five 
History 

I.   Sandtable  illustration  for  story  of  Daniel  Boone,  show- 
ing stockade  at  Boonesborough,  cabins,  house   in 
Missouri,  etc. 
II.    Series  of  individual  booklets  on  Boone. 
III.   Sandtable  illustration  of  Pilgrim  home  life. 
rV.   Series  of  booklets  on  Pilgrims. 
V.    Series  of  posters  on  Pilgrims. 


PROJECTS  CAJIRIED   OUT  BY  VARIOUS   TEACHERS      II9 


Fig.  42.  — i'osc  Work  with  Stories  and  Games.    Third  Grade. 
Coiumbiu,  Mo. 


I20  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORJC 

VI.   Sandtable    illustration    showing    events   in    life    of 

Washington. 
VII.  Colonial  cabin  of  two  rooms,  showing  kitchen  and 
cooking  utensils,  furniture,  bed,  dolls  in  costume. 

List  B  by  same  teacher  as  List  A.  Work  done 
almost  wholly  in  class  time  as  regular  study  and 
recitation. 

Geography 

I.   Sandtable  illustration  of  lumber  camp.     Cabin,  jflume, 

mill,  and  ice  road. 
II.    Sandtable  illustration  of  gold  mine  with  mining  ma- 
chinery. 
III.   Sandtable  relief  map  of  California. 
rV.   Sandtable    representation    of    salmon    fisheries    and 

cannery. 
V.    Series  of  books  on  birds. 
VI.   Series  of  books  on  trees. 
VII.   Series  of  posters;    each  state  with  its  products  and 

industries. 
VIII.   Series  of  posters  showing  evolution  of  transportation 
by  land. 
IX.   Series  of  color  charts  showing  products  and  industries 

of  Missouri.  / 

List  C,  Grade  Five 
History 

I.   Sandtable  problem  illustrating  Battle  of  Quebec,  show- 
ing fort  on  plateau  and  soldiers. 
II.   Sandtable  problem  showing  events  in  life  of  Lincoln. 

Geography 

III.  Sandtable  illustration  for  Philippine  Islands,  showing 
home  life. 


PROJECTS   CARRIED   OUT    BY   VARIOUS   TEACHERS      121 

List  D,  Grade  Five 
Geography 
I.    Series  of  booklets  on  industries  of  the  United  States. 
II.    Series  of  posters  on  Philippine  Islands. 

III.  Sandtable  illustration  for  Salt  Lake  City  and  vicinity, 

showing  process  of  irrigation. 

IV.  Sandtable  illustration  of  Philippine  village. 


Fig.  4.V  —  Tlic  batUc  of  (juchcc.     I'ifth  Cirade.     Columljia,  Mo. 

V.  Numerous  spontaneous  illustrations  on  sandtable, 
showing  outline  of  country  or  slate,  river  valleys, 
tributaries,  etc.,  quickly  made  during  recitation  and 
destroyed  soon  after. 
Numbers  I  and  IV  were  all  done  in  study  period  as 
regular  work. 

IJislory 
I.   Series  of  booklets  containing  a  (ollection  of  history 
papers.     Made  during  regular  study  Hours. 
In  addition  this  class  ma<le  booklets  on  other  topics  — 
five  series  in  all,  and  three  scries  of  i)oslcrs.     All 
done  as  method  of  studying  the  subject. 


122  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

List  E,  Grade  Five 

(With  Grade  Four) 
History 

I.  Booklets  ■  on  New  England  States.  Illustrated  by 
pictures  of  famous  places  mounted  on  separate 
sheets,  and  colored  maps. 
II.  Sandtable  scene  —  Bunker  Hill.  In  first  attempt  on 
sandtable,  grass  and  corn  were  planted,  but  froze 
during  the  Thanksgiving  holiday.  A  second  at- 
tempt turned  out  well. 
III.  House  framed  and  furnished.  Used  chiefly  in  con- 
nection with  arithmetic  for  papering  and  plastering 
problems. 

List  F,  Grade  Five 
History 

I.    Sandtable.     Routes  of  explorers  shown  on  sandtable 

with  ships  and  flags  of  each  country. 

II.  Series  of  problems  on  sandtable  illustrating  Colonial 

life. 
a.   Virginia  —  figures       showing       gentlemen  —  not 

laborers. 
h.   Holland  —  map  with  dikes,  mills,  etc. 

c.  Pilgrims  —  Plymouth  Rock  —  town  of  seven  huts, 

people  shown  as  poor. 

d.  Puritans  —  people   shown  as  well-to-do,   schools, 

including  Harvard. 

e.  Rhode  Island  —  Roger  Williams  and  Indians  rep- 

resented. 
/.    Connecticut  —  showing  Hooker's  trip  from  Massa- 
chusetts. 

III.  Sandtable  illustration  showing  Boston  Tea  Party. 

IV.  Constructions  —  models  of  inventions. 
a.   Fulton's  steamboat. 


PROJECTS   CARRIED   OUT   BY   VARIOUS   TEACHERS      1 23 

b.  Telegraph  —  not  well  worked  out. 

c.  Cotton  gin  —  good  model. 

V.   Series   of   posters   showing  events  of   each  adminis- 
tration. 
VI.   Series  of  booklets  and  posters  for  general  review  of 

history. 
Geography 
I.   Sandtable  map  of  New  England,  showing  industries  in 

small  constructions. 
II.    Individual  posters  on  New  England  industries. 

III.  Sandtable  illustration  of  lumber  camp  in  Maine,  with 

cabin,  mill,  sled,  etc. 

IV.  Sandtable  illustration  for  fishing,  showing  hatchery, 

spawn  pond,  oyster  dredges,  etc. 
V.   Series  of  constructions  showing  industries  of  Middle 
States. 

a.  Coal  mine,  with  shaft. 

b.  Brick  kiln. 

c.  Oil  well  with  derrick. 

d.  Salt  mine. 

e.  Iron  mine. 

/.    Glass  factory. 
g.   Pottery. 
VI.    Sandtable  illustration  of  Southern  plantation  and  tur- 
pentine farm. 
VII.   Sandtable  for  Western  States  showing  mines. 

a.  Hydraulic,  i)anning  gold. 

b.  Shaft  mine  and  ore  crusher. 
\'II1.    Series  of  color  maps  for  each  section. 

XI.   Series  of  rainfall  maps. 
X.    Series  of  color  maps  showing  mining  centers. 
XI.    Sandtable   illustration   for    I'anama  —  showing  canal 
with  locks  —  locks  made  to  lift  the  boats  up  and 
down  quite  successfully. 


124 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


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PROJECTS   CARRIED   OUT   BY   VARIOUS   TEACHERS      1 25 

List  G,  Grades  Five  and  Six 
History 
I,    Sandtable   illustration  for   Columbus   Day.     Figures 
made  before  table  was  provided  proved  to  be 
too  large  when  table  was  received.     Class  dis- 
couraged and  subject  rested  for  several  days. 
On  Columbus  Day  geography  period  (one-half 
hour  study,  one-half  hour  for  recitation)   was 
given  over  to  illustration  on  sandtable.     A  good 
piece  of  work  was  done  in  one  hour. 
II.    Sandtable   illustration  of   Colonial   life   showing   log 

cabins,  spinning  wheels,  well-sweep,  ox  carts. 
III.  Series  of  booklets  on  American  heroes. 

Geography 

I.   Lumber  camp  on  sandtable,  in  connection  with  read- 
ing of  "Building  of  the  Ship." 
Time  —  spare  minutes  during  two  or  three  days. 
11.    Life  in  Holland  (Grade  Six)  showing  canals,  dikes, 
windmills,  etc. 
Time  —  Lesson  periods  for  five  days ;   work  done  by 
small    groups    while   others    were    occupied   at 
seats. 

III.  Series  of  booklets  on  European  countries. 

IV.  Southern  |)lantation  on  sandtable  (Grade  Five),  in- 

cUuling  several  houses  and  many  clay  figures, 
cotton-fields  of  real  cotton  stalks. 
Time       Done  in  odd  minutes  while  class  was  study- 
ing the  Southern  States. 
V.    Scottish  scene  (Sixth  Grade)  in  connection  with  geog- 
raphy   of    Europe    and    "Lady  of    llii-    Lake;" 
castle  in  cenuiil,  real  grass  growing  on   island 
anfl  hills. 
(See  Fig.  i,  Page  3.) 


126  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

List  H,  Grades  Five  and  Six 
History 
I.    Sandtable  illustration  of  Indian  camp. 
II.   New  England  kitchen,  showing  furniture,  dolls  in  cos- 
tume, etc. 
Additional  work  in  other  subjects : 
Series  of  booklets  in  arithmetic. 
.^Series  of  booklets  in  language. 
;  Series  of  booklets  illustrating  poems. 
The  work  in  this  class  was  done  almost  entirely  during 
',',  ;,    study  hours. 
Geogrdp/iy 
I.   S^ies  of  booklets  on  European  countries,  by  Sixth 

\     Grade. 
II.   Series  of  posters  for  each  European  country,  by  Sixth 

Grade. 
III.   Series  of  booklets  on  each  group  of  states,  by  Fifth 
Grade. 
,  rV,"  Series  of  posters  for  Middle  States. 

\V.    Series  of  posters  for  Western  States. 
""I.   Community  posters  for : 
\  Central  fStates,  by  Grade  Five. 

Western  States,  by  Grade  Five. 
Europe,  by  Grade  Six. 
VII.    Constructionis  -^  European  vehicles,  by  Sixth  Grade. 
Dutch  njilk  cart,   Irish  jaunting  car,   Russian 
droshky'. 
VIII.    Sandtable  illustrations  including : 

a.  Lumber  camp. 

b.  Coal  mine. 

c.  Holland. 

d.  A  farm.  '" 
V     e.    Relief  maps. 


PROJECTS  CARRIED  OUT  BY  VARIOUS  TEACHERS   1 27 

List  I,  Grades  Five  and  Six 

History 
I,    Sandtable    illustration    for   early   settlement   period, 

showing  settlement  at  one  end  of  table,  Indian 

village  in  forest  at  opposite  end. 
II.   Sandtable  illustration  for  Bunker  Hill,  arranged  by 

girls. 

III.  Series  of  posters  illustrating  United  States  history  to 

Revolution.     Class  in  three  groups  under  cap- 
tains who  assigned  topics. 

IV.  Poster  review  of  the  year's  work  in  history.    Class  in 

three  sections  under  captains. 
V.   Series  of  posters  illustrating  a  quotation  from  "The 
Courtship  of  Miles  Standish"  read  in  connection 
with  history.     Each  pupil  chose  a  quotation  and 
made  an  illustrative  sketch. 
Geography 
I.   Series  of  booklets  on  South  America.     Class  in  three 
groups  on  three  topics. 
Time  —  Class  work  and  home  reading  for  one  week. 
II.    Sandtable  scene  showing  Western  prairie,  with  dugout, 
etc.  by  boys. 
Time  —  one  hour. 
ill.    Illustrated  booklets,  describing  countries  of  T-Airope. 
Class  worked  in  three  sections  under  captains. 
IV.   Sandtable  problems  to  accompany  No.  III. 
First  section  —  Spanish  scene. 
Second  section  —  Dutch  scene. 
Thirrl  section  —  Russia  anfl  S(;in(liiia\ia. 

Thi.s  class  madu  several  sandlahle  illtislrations 
for  literature  work  —  including  "  Snowbound  "  and 
"  Home  of  John  Burroughs." 


128  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

List  J,  Grade  Six 
History 
I.   Sandtable  illustration  for  Columbus  Day.     Parallels 
and  meridians  located  by  strings  stretched  across 
table.     Cuba,  South  America,  Florida  in  relief 
in  sand,  figures  in  cardboard.     "Bad  boy"  in- 
terested in  making  boats. 
Geography 
I.    Lumber  camp  on  sandtable,  showing  log  cabin,  flume, 
ice  road,  loaded  wagon,  sawmill  with  engine. 
Written  work  accompanying  above  : 
Diary  of  five  days'  visit  to  a  lumber  camp. 
Letter  written  from  camp  to  some  one  at  home. 
II.    Sand  map  of  British  Isles,  showing  parallels  and  me- 
ridians, cotton  and  wool  manufacturing  district, 
coal  industry,  and  important  cities. 

III.  Sandtable  and  construction,   home  Hfe  in    Holland, 

showing : 
well  made  Dutch  house  with  appropriate  furnishings, 
windmill  with  wheel  operated  by  spring, 
garden  and  farm  implements, 
cattle  in  clay, 
people  in  costume  (dolls). 

IV.  Sandtable  and  construction,  castle  on  Rhine  of  stones 

and   cement,   in   appropriate   setting   on    sand- 
table. 
V.    Sandtaljle  and  construction,  Lapland  home,  showing 
hut  of  mud  and  stone,  reindeer  and  sled,  people 
in  costume  (dolls). 
VI.   Sandtable   and   construction,    life   in    South    Russia, 

showing  thatched  hut. 
VI L  Sandtable  and  construction,  relief  map  of  Italy,  show- 
ing St.  Gothard  tunnel.  Tower  of  Pisa,  Vesuvius, 
orange  grove,  macaroni  factory,  etc. 


PROJECTS   CARRIED  OUT   BY  VARIOUS   TEACHERS      1 29 


130  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

List  K,  Grade  Si^ 
History 
I.    Series  of  posters,  illustrating  Colonial  customs,  cos- 
tumes, and  travel. 
II.   Series  of  booklets  on  Heroes  of  Revolution. 
Both  series  done  in  study  period. 
In  addition  this  class  made, 
Booklets : 
Language  —  two  sets. 
Reading  —  one  set. 
Drawing  —  one  set. 
Posters : 

Drawing  —  one  set. 
All  work  done  in  study  period. 
Geography 
I.    Series  of  posters  on  Europe,  showing  products,  houses, 

vehicles,  flags,  rulers,  etc. 
II.    Series  of  booklets  on  countries  of  Europe.     Both  done 

in  study  period  as  regular  work. 
III.   Dolls    dressed    in    costume    of    European    countries. 
Work  done  out  of  school  hours,  at  home  and  at 
recesses;    sewing  by  girls,  wooden  shoes,  rake, 
etc.,  by  boys. 

List  L,  Grade  Six 
History 
I.    Construction  —  costumes    and    scenery    for    original 
drama  on  "Columbus  at  Court  of  Spain." 
Time  —  class  hour  and  periods  before  school  for  week 
preceding  Columbus  Day. 
II.    Sandtable   illustration   for  French  and  Indian  War, 
showing  French  homes,  American  homes,  French 
fort. 
Time  —  of  selected  groups  during  two  class  periods. 


PROJECTS   C.\RRIED   OUT   BY   VARIOUS   TEACHERS      131 


132  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

III.   Sandtablc  illustration  of  scenes  at  Valley  Forge,  show- 
ing soldiers  and  tents  on  snowy  field,  blood  prints 
in  snow. 
Geography 
I.   Posters    illustrating    products    of    South    America. 
Series  by  each  pupil. 
Time  —  class  hour  for  study  during  time  devoted  to 
topic  —  about  two  weeks. 
II.    Sandtable  illustration  for  Scandinavian  region,  show- 
ing rugged  coast  line  and  home  hfe. 
III.   Sandtable  illustration  for  Italy.     Table  in  two  sec- 
tions, girls  showed  Venice  in  one  part,  and  boys 
showed  Rome  in  another  part. 
Time  — .study  hour  —  half  hour  period. 

List  M,  Grade  Six 
History 

I.   Series  of  posters  as  review  of  administrations. 

II.    Series  of  Hero  Books. 

Also: 

Series  of  posters  in  nature  study. 

Series  of  posters  on  stories  read. 

Several  series  of  booklets  giving  outlines  of  books 

read,  as  "A  Dog  of  Flanders,"   "Rebecca  of 

Sunny  Brook  Farm." 

This  class  did  exceptionally  strong  work  from  the 
artistic  standpoint  in  the  preparation  of  their  book- 
lets and  posters. 

Geography 
I.   Series  of  posters  on  products. 
II.   Series  of  booklets  on  countries  of  Europe. 

These  were  both  done  in  regular  study  periods  as 
method  of  studying  subject. 


PROJECTS   CARRIED  OUT  BY  VARIOUS  TEACHERS      1 33 


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134  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

III.    Sandtable  illustrations  for 

a.  Ireland 

b.  Holland 

c.  Scotland 

d.  Italy 

These  were  made  almost  entirely  in  study  periods. 
Extra  time,  if  any,  not  over  one  hour  during 
week  in  which  illustration  was  made. 
IV.  Numerous  spontaneous  illustrations  on  sandtable 
while  topics  were  under  discussion.  These  re- 
garded by  teacher  as  most  helpful  use  of  the 
sandtable. 
V.    Constructions  —  vehicles   used   in   Holland,   Ireland, 

Belgium,  Russia  and  Spain. 
VI.    Swiss  peasant  cottage. 
VII.   Venetian  gondola. 
VIII.   Volcano  in  eruption  —  built  on  sandtable. 

These  were  individual  constructions  made  chiefly  at 
home  and  out  of  class  hours. 

List  N,  Grade  Six 
History 
I.    Series  of  posters  on  events  of  Revolution. 
II.    Series  of  posters  on    "Evangeline"  and    "Courtship 
of   Miles  Standish"    (read    in   connection  with 
history). 
Geography 
I.    Series  of  booklets  on  each  country  of  Europe. 

Time  —  study  hour,  as  method  of  study. 
II.    Sandtable  illustrations  for 

a.  Holland 

b.  London 

c.  Castle  on  the  Rhine 

Made  almost  entirely  during  study  periods. 


PROJECTS  CARRIED  OUT   BY   VARIOUS  TEACHERS      1 35 


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136  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

List  P,  Grade  Seven 
Geography 
I.    Series  of  posters  showing  produclioiis  of  Asia.     Each 

poster  made  by  two  pupils. 
II.   Series  of  posters  showing  life  in  Africa,  animals,  prod- 
ucts, caravan,  etc. 
III.  Poster    review    of    industries    in    foreign    countries. 
I,  II  and  III  all  done  in  regular  study  hour  as 
the  method  of  studying  these  topics. 
History 
I.    Sandtaljle  map  of  United  States  showing  extension  of 
territory  including  measurements  in  proportion. 
Time  —  Prepared  during  regular' study  period  by  small 
groups  working  in  turn  —  each  group  respon- 
sible for  certain  part. 
II.   Sandtable  —  life  in  the  thirteen  colonies,  showing  early 
conditions. 
Time  —  study  hour  during  a  week  of  review,  work 
apportioned  as  in  I. 

III.  Relief  map  of  United  States,  showing  development 

from  colonial  times  to   1850,  including  Penn's 
Treaty  with  Indians,  post  roads.  Southern  plan- 
tation, and  Cahfornia  gold  fields. 
Study  periods  for  ten  days  —  apportioned  among  five 
groups. 

IV.  Booklet  on  Reconstruction  Period,  original  sketches 

for  illustration,  original  designs  for  covers. 
Time  —  two  recitation  periods. 

List  R,  Grade  Seven 
History 
I.    Series  of  Hero  Books  containing  several  stories  each. 
JI.    Washington  and  Lincoln  —  February  celebration. 
Class  divided  into  two  groups'  one  on  each   topic. 


PROJECTS   CARRIED   OUT   BY   VARIOUS   TEACHERS      137 


138  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Each  pupil  made  a  booklet.  Each  division  made  a 
sandtable  illustration  of  the  home  of  the  hero. 
This  study  included  a  debate  on  the  services  per- 
formed by  these  two  men. 
Time  —  study  hour  and  part  of  recitation  periods 
during  week  preceding  hoUday  celebrated. 
III.   Booklets  on  Farragut. 

rV.    Series  of  posters  showing  principal  events  of  each  ad- 
ministration.    Each  pupil  made  two  posters. 
Time  —  study  period. 
V.    Construction.     Model  of  cotton  gin,  made  by  one  boy 
at  odd  times.     Model  of  carpet  loom,  made  by 
a  group  of  boys  during  study  periods. 
Geography 
I.    Series  of  problems  on  Asia,  including  individual  posters 
and  booklets  on  each  of  the  topics : 
a.   Holy  Land 
h.   India 

c.  China 

d.  Japan 

II.    Sandtable  illustrations  to  accompany  each    of    four 
topics  in  I.     (See  Project  No.  i.) 

III.  Series  of  individual  booklets  on  Africa. 

IV.  Series  of  individual  booklets  on  Australia. 

Time  for  I,  II,  III,  and  IV  —  regular  study  period. 
V.   Quick  work  at  sandtable  during  recitation  to  illustrate 
topic  under  discussion,  as  Jordan  River  and  Dead 
Sea. 

In  addition  to  work  in  history  and  geography  this 
class  made  booklets  in  Enghsh  and  nature  study, 
a  Color  Note  Book  in  art,  and  one  or  two  sand- 
table illustrations  for  English.  Their  illustra- 
tion for  the  "  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow  "  was  one 
of  their  best  efforts. 


PROJECTS  CARRIED  OUT  BY  VARIOUS  TEACHERS   1 39 

List  S,  Grade  Seven 
History 
I.    Series  of  booklets  on  Presidents. 
II.   Series  of  booklets  on  Inventors. 
III.   Series  of  booklets  on  Generals  of  Civil  War. 
Geography 
I.    Series  of  posters  on  products  of  Asia. 
IT.    Series  of  booklets  on  countries  of  Asia. 
III.   Sandtablc  used  for  quickly  made  relief  maps. 

In  addition,  in  connection  with  art  study,  house  built 
and  furnished ;  posters  on  Halloween,  Christ- 
mas, and  Easter. 


CHAPTER   V 

SELECTED   PROJECTS   IN  DETAIL' 

Project  No.  I 
Subject : 

Geography  in  the  Seventh  Grade. 

Field,  Asia. 

Text,  Tarr  and  McMurry,  Book  II,  pp.  341-371. 

Problem  of  Project.  —  (a)  To  use  illustrative 
methods  which  would  employ  a  variety  of  forms  of 
expression,  {b)  To  secure  self-expression  and  self- 
directed  activity  by  throwing  each  pupil  on  his  own 
responsibility  in  illustrating  some  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  — •  To  make  either  a  poster  or 
booklet  or  share  in  a  sandtable  illustration  which 

1  The  first  eight  of  the  following  projects  are  taken  directly  from  the 
report  in  which  they  first  appeared.  In  these  projects  particular  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  time  element,  since  one  purpose  of  the  experiments 
was  to  discover  whether  these  methods  could  be  carried  out  without  in- 
creasing the  time  allotted  to  the  subject.  Manj'  of  the  other  projects 
outlined  were  carried  out  as  ordinarj'  school  work  but  did  not  form  a 
part  of  the  experimental  studies.  In  these  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
give  an  accurate  statement  of  the  conditions  affecting  the  results,  and 
some  items  are  necessarily  omitted,  such  as  the  texts  used,  the  time  re- 
quired, and  the  number  of  pupils  doing  the  work.  The  projects  were 
all  carried  out  under  conditions  common  to  all  school  rooms,  one  pur- 
pose of  the  entire  study  being  to  disturb  the  regular  habits  of  the  class 
as  little  as  possible. 

140 


SELECTED   PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  141 

would  illustrate  the  important  features  of  the  topic 
ufider  discussion. 

Form  oj  Illustration.  —  Posters,  booklets,  and  sand- 
table  with  some  construction. 

Conditions.  —  Class  of  thirty-five  pupils  under  a 
strong,  experienced  teacher. 

Time.  —  Regular  lesson  period  of  one-half  hour 
daily.  No  extra  time.  Each  phase  of  subject 
occupied  from  three  to  five  periods,  or  from  one  and 
one-half  hours  to  two  and  one-half  hours. 

Organization  of  Class.  —  Class  di\dded  into  three 
groups.  The  first  group  made  posters ;  the  second 
group  made  booklets ;  and  the  third  group  made  a 
sandtable  illustration.  Groups  were  rotated  as  a 
new  topic  was  taken  u]). 

Organization  of  Subject-matter.  —  Four  general 
toi)ics  were  selected  for  study :  Holy  Land,  India, 
China,  and  Ja])an. 

Text  used  first,  followed  by  supplementary  read- 
ing from  every  avaikible  source. 

After  a  general  chiss  discussion  each  piij)!!  tried 
to  exj)ress  his  idea  of  the  important  features  by 
means  of  an  illustration. 

Detail  of  Mrtliod.  Posters.  Each  |)U])il  of  ihc 
poster  grouj)  was  directed  to  prepare  a  ])ostcr  which 
would  illustrate  his  (•()n{ej)ti<)ii  of  the  important 
features  c)f  the  to])ic  imdcr  consideration  with  icfer- 
ence  to  i)hysi(al  characteristics,  products,  home  life 
and  industrial  methods.     These  features  were  to  be 


142  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

shown  in  pictures  and  sketches  arranged  upon  a 
sheet  of  drawing  ])aper,  according  to  the  worker's 
idea  of  good  taste. 

After  the  posters  were  completed  they  were  com- 
pared and  criticized  from  the  standpoint  of  topics 
illustrated,  arrangement  of  pictures,  and  lettering. 
Each  group  made  a  marked  advance  over  the  pre- 
ceding group  in  the  quality  of  the  work  done.  Great 
improvement  was  shown  by  the  first  group  in  mak- 
ing the  second  set  of  posters  after  having  had  the 
benefit  of  the  criticisms  on  the  work  of  groups  two 
and  three,  as  well  as  upon  their  own.  The  growth 
in  art  appreciation  was  shown  by  the  ability  of  the 
pupils  to  estimate  their  own  productions  before 
other  comments  were  made. 

Detail  of  Method.  —  Booklets.  The  members  of 
the  booklet  group  were  directed  to  prepare  written 
descriptions  of  the  important  features  of  the  country, 
giving  especial  attention  to  government,  religious 
customs,  and  features  not  so  easily  portrayed  with- 
out the  use  of  words.  The  descriptions  were  to  be 
illustrated  as  the  writer  desired  and  bound  appro- 
priately. 

Each  group  made  improvement  on  the  work  of 
the  preceding  group,  especially  in  the  character  of 
illustrations  and  cover.  The  first  covers  were  on 
white  paper,  some  of  them  lettered  in  pencil  and  the 
lettering  not  very  well  done.  The  later  covers  were 
made  of  gray  and  green  papers,  lettered  carefully 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  •  1 43 

in  India  ink,  with  the  addition  in  some  cases  of  an 
appropriate  design.  Some  of  the  books  on  Japan 
had  the  title  in  Japanese  characters,  which  the 
writers  had  learned  by  conferring  with  Japanese 
students  in  the  University. 

Detail  of  Method.  —  Sandtable.  The  sandtable 
problems  took  the  form  of  rehef  maps,  which  were 
placed  in  relation  to  the  parallels  and  meridians. 
These  maps  were,  of  necessity,  small,  and  only  the 
main  features  and  general  contour  of  the  land  could 
be  shown.  Forests  were  indicated  by  groups  of 
paper  trees.  T>'pical  industries  were  shown  by 
clay  figures  and  by  pictures  of  people  at  work  set 
in  the  proper  locality.  Flags  bearing  the  national 
emblem  were  used  to  locate  the  important  cities. 
Typical  houses  constructed  from  paper,  wood  or 
clay  were  shown  in  miniature. 

Correlation.  —  This  i)r()blem  was  based  upon  geog- 
raj)hy.  The  making  of  posters  gave  opportunity 
for  development  in  artistic  appreciation.  Tlic  writ- 
ing of  the  descrij)tive  matter  for  the  booklets  fur- 
nished material  for  i)ractice  in  composition.  The 
sandmaps  rcfjuirc-d  |)racti(e  in  mcasurctncnl  in- 
cluding ])roblems  in  longitude  and  latitude.  The 
entire  |)roblem  served  as  a  motive  for  reading  in  the 
search  for  information  neerled  in  eacli  project.  The 
discover)'  of  a  practical  use  for  j)rinting  in  the 
making  of  posters  and  book  covers,  awakened  a 
lively  interest  in  learning  to  make  good  letters. 


144  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Project  No.  II 
Subject : 

History  in  Seventh  Grade. 

Topic  :  Development  of  United  States  to  1850. 

Text  —  Gordy,  pp.  185-281. 

Problem  of  Project.  —  To  use  sandtable  illustra- 
tion as  a  means  of  emphasizing  strong  points  in  a 
general  review. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  —  To  make  a  relief  map  of 
the  United  States  and  show  thereon  typical  features 
in  the  development  of  the  country. 

Cofiditions.  —  Class  of  forty  pupils  under  a  strong, 
experienced  teacher. 

Type  of  Illustration.  —  Relief  map  on  sandtable. 

Time.  —  One  lesson  period  for  each  of  six  groups. 
Period,  one-half  hour  for  study,  one-half  hour  for 
recitation.  Total  time  in  class,  six  hours.  Some 
details  finished  out  of  class  time. 

Organization  of  Class.  — -  Class  divided  into  six 
groups.  Each  group  had  a  definite  part  to  perform 
and  was  allowed  one  lesson  period  in  which  to  place 
its  contribution  on  the  table. 

Organization  of  Subject-matter.  —  As  a  form  of 
review  the  subject  was  subdivided  into  topics  cover- 
ing a  period  in  national  development  and  one 
incident  chosen  as  typical  of  that  period,  —  each 
incident  to  be  represented  by  an  appropriate  illus- 
tration. 

Method  in  Detail.  —  Each  group  planned  its  illus- 


SELECTED   PROJECTS   IN  DETAIL  1 45 

tration  and  put  it  in  place.  To  the  first  group  was 
assigned  the  task  of  preparing  the  map  on  the  sand- 
table.  The  completed  project  showed  William 
Penn  making  treaty  with  Indians,  a  corduroy  post 
road,  a  Southern  plantation,  a  fort  at  St.  Louis,  and 
the  discovery  of  gold  in  California. 

Correlation.  —  This  problem  was  based  upon  his- 
tory. Making  the  sandmap  involved  a  review  of 
the  geograj^hy  of  the  United  States ;  ex])laining  the 
various  features  gave  practice  in  oral  description. 
No  written  work  accompanied  this  problem.  Mak- 
ing the  sandmap  required  considerable  practice 
with  numbers  in  getting  the  proper  proportions. 

(See  Figure  49.) 

Project  No.  Ill 
Subject : 

(ieography  —  Sixth  Ciradc. 

Field  —  Europe. 

Text  —  Tarr  and  McMurr)-,  Book  II,  i)p.  257  340. 

Problem  of  Projeet.  — •  To  discox  er  to  wlial  extent 
the  sandtable  construclions  could  bi-  ust-d  with  good 
results  in  illustrating  home  and  industrial  life,  special 
emphasis  being  laifl  uixm  knowledge  of  (he  i)eoi)le 
as  an  incentive  for  stuclying  \\\v  |)hysi(al  (oiuiilions 
of  the  counJLry. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  — To  build  a  miniature  house 
of  the  type  used  in  a  given  countPy^  with  charac- 
teristic    furnishings    and    jx'ople    in     characteristic 


146 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


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SELECTED    PROJECTS    IN   DETAIL  1 47 

costume,  the  house  to  be  set  up  on  the  sandtable 
with  appropriate  surroundings. 

Form  of  Illustration.  — •  Construction  with  the 
sandtable  for  a  background. 

Conditions.  — ■  Class  of  thirty-eight  pupils  under 
a  strong  and  experienced  teacher. 

Time.  —  Full  time  devoted  to  entire  subject  was 
a  little  under  six  months ;  to  sub-topics  an  average 
of  two  weeks,  varying  with  the  importance  of  the 
country.  Actual  time  on  any  one  topic  was  the 
period  before  school  morning  and  noon,  and  odd 
minutes  during  the  day.  Very  little  class  time  was 
used  in  this  instance.  Actual  time  spent  amounted 
to  less  than  one-half  hour  daily  for  eight  or  ten  days 
by  a  grou])  of  five  or  six  pu])ils. 

Some  countries  were  not  represented,  through  some 
accident  to  the  construction  or  kick  of  energy  on  the 
part  of  the  grouj),  or  were  crowded  out  by  the  pressure 
of  other  work  and  the  lure  of  the  first  s])ring  days. 

Organization  of  Class. — The  class  was  dixided 
into  groups  of  live  or  six  j)U])ils,  each  grouj)  con- 
structing a  house,  typical  of  a  given  country.  As 
the  houses  were  completed  they  were  set  uj)  on  tlir 
sandtable  and  some  scene  ty|)i(al  of  ihe  customs  of 
the  people  was  arranged  as  a  background. 

While  each  house  was  being  hiiih,  ihc  i)hysical 
features  of  the  country  il  icprcscnl cd  were  sludicd 
in  Llieir  rchilion  to  the  h<»nu-  aiu]  industrial  life  of 
the  people. 


148 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


Organization  of  Subject-matter.  —  The  countries 
were  taken  up  in  the  order  followed  by  the  text. 
The  text  was  supplemented  by  Carpenter's  ''  Europe" 
and  numerous  other  descriptions  found  in  the  school 


Fig.  51.  —  A  Dutch  Farm.     (See  Project  III.    Page  148.) 


library  and  brought  by  the  children  from  their  home 
libraries. 

Method  in  Detail.  —  British  Isles.  Shown  by 
sand  map  only.  Cords  stretched  for  parallels  and 
meridians.  Small  representations  to  locate  mining 
and  manufacturing  districts.     Cities  located  by  flags. 

Holland.  Dutch  house  with  red  tile  roof,  interior 
decorations  in  Delft  blue,  tulip  garden,  dolls  in  Dutch 
costumes,  windmill  turned  by  wire  spring,  mill  of 


SELECTED   PROJECTS    IN   DETAIL 


149 


clay  modeled  over  a  milk  bottle,  cattle  modeled  in 
clay. 

Northern  Europe.  Laplander's  hut  in  mud  and 
stones,  reindeer  and  sled,  people  (dolls)  in  costume, 
entire  scene  snow  covered.     (See  Frontispiece.) 


In..   5J.        S(i-nisin  ll.ily.      i,mc  I'roji  ,  i   111.      l'aj;i;  I  )i;.) 


Southeastern  l']ur()j)e.  Thalchcd  cottage  with  a])- 
propriate  surroundings. 

Germany.  Castle  on  Kliiiic  in  c one  rete  and  stone, 
vineyards  shown  on  hillsides. 

Italy.  Sandmaj)  on  \vlii(  h  were  shown  St. 
Gothard's  tunnel  through  tiie  Ali)s,  I>eaning  Tower, 
Mt.  Vesuvius,  orange  and  lemon  gro\-es,  a  macaroni 
factor)'.     (See  Figure  52.) 


150  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Correlation.  —  This  problem  was  based  upon  geog- 
raphy. The  search  for  information  concerning  the 
different  projects  led  to  individual  reading  with  a 
definite  purpose.  Measurements  of  various  sorts 
required  an  application  of  knowledge  of  number. 
In  clay  modeling,  in  proportions  of  houses,  etc.,  in 
selection  of  colors,  and  in  general  arrangement  the 
child's  artistic  sense  was  given  exercise. 

Project  No.  IV 
Subject : 

Geography  in  Sixth  Grade. 

Field  —  Europe. 

Text  — Tarr  and  McMurry,  Book  II,  pp.  257-340. 

Problem  of  Project.  — ■  To  use  the  preparation  of 
an  illustrated  booklet  as  a  motive  for  the  study  of 
geography. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  —  To  cooperate  with  each  other 
in  collecting  descriptive  and  illustrative  material 
upon  the  various  countries  of  Europe  and  to  write 
upon  one  of  the  countries. 

Conditions.  —  Class  of  forty  pupils  under  very 
strong  teacher. 

Form  of  Illustration.  —  Individual  booklets  by 
each  i)upil.  Various  topics  illustrated  upon  sand- 
table  and  by  construction. 

Time.  —  Entire  period  for  subject,  six  months ; 
for  each  country,  one  to  three  weeks  according  to 
its  importance.     Two  weeks  after  the  last  class  dis- 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  151 

cussion  of  the  topic  was  allowed  for  completion  of 
booklets.  Time  for  sandtable  —  class  hour  for  one  or 
two  lesson  periods  for  a  small  group  of  pupils.  In- 
dividual illustrations,  as  Irish  jaunting  car,  were 
made  out  of  class  hours  or  at  home. 

Organization  of  Class.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the 
study  of  Europe,  each  pupil  was  assigned  one  coun- 


I'lc.  53.  —  Swedish  Uaycart  and  Irish  Jaunting  Car.     Sixlb  Grade. 

Columljia,  Mo. 

try,  each  couiili)'  being  assigned  to  more  tlian  one 
puj)il. 

As  ()])j)()rluMily  offered  iiidix  i(hial  pupils  were 
encouraged  to  construct  ilUislraliNc  models  ot  fea- 
tures discussed  in  class  ;  for  instance,  types  of  \ehicles 
in  different  countries,  in  some  cases,  as  dilTerent 
countries  were  studied,  a  sandtable  illustration  was 
mafle  by  a  selected  group. 

Organization  of  Stihjrrf  uuillcr.  Al'lcr  the  assign- 
ment of  topics  for  booklets,  the  study  followed  the 
order  of  the  text.     The  text  was  supplement cfl  by 


152  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

numerous  books  in  the  school  library  and  by  con- 
tributions from  the  class.  All  topics  were  studied 
ahke  by  all  pupils. 

Pupils  were  encouraged  to  pass  on  any  useful 
material  to  others  who  were  collecting  material 
upon  the  topic.  Selection  was  made  from  the  list 
of  assigned  readings,  and  such  selections  as  "A  Dog 
of  Flanders"  and  "A  heak  in  the  Dike"  were  read 
when  appropriate  to  the  study  of  geography. 

Method  in  Detail.  —  In  carrying  out  the  above 
outline  each  pupil  was  made  to  feel  responsibility 
for  his  particular  topic  to  the  fullest  extent.  Those 
assigned  to  the  less  interesting  topics  were  helped 
to  find  the  interesting  features  that  careful  study 
was  sure  to  develop. 

In  some  cases  where  several  were  assigned  to  one 
country,  each  one  wrote  upon  a  special  phase  of  the 
topic;  as  for  example,  "The  Art  of  Italy,"  "Dairy- 
ing in  Holland."  Each  pupil  designed  a  cover  for 
the  booklet.  These  were  for  the  most  part  made  of 
neutral  toned  paper  with  well  lettered,  well  placed 
titles  for  their  only  decoration.  Each  booklet  con- 
tained several  chapters  or  short  sketches  on  various 
phases  of  the  topic.  These  chapters  were  submitted 
to  the  teacher  for  criticism  in  most  cases  before 
being  bound  into  the  book. 

Correlation.  —  The  basis  of  this  study  was  geog- 
raphy. The  writing  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 
booklets  supphed  motive  and  material  for  work  in 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IX   DETAIL  1 53 

English.  The  choice  of  appropriate  material  added 
interest  to  the  reading  while  it  enriched  the  geog- 
raphy. The  selection  of  illustrations,  the  making 
of  sketches,  and  the  designing  of  the  cover  gave 
opportunity  for  applying  the  principles  of  design 
given  in  the  regular  art  lessons. 

Other  Projects  Based  upon  the  Study  of  Europe.  — • 
One  class  which  worked  in  a  very  small  room  could 
not  make  use  of  a  sandtable.  In  this  class  em])hasis 
was  placed  upon  booklet  and  poster  making  and  such 
forms  of  construction  as  space  permitted.  Figure 
No.  54  shows  a  few  of  the  dolls  dressed  in  peasant 
costumes  by  the  girls.  Figure  No.  53  shows 
some  t^-pical  European  \-ehicles  made  by  boys  in 
this  and  other  classes.  These  j)rojects  were  chiefly 
indi\idual  contributions  on  which  the  work  was  done 
out  of  class  time  for  llic  most  ])arl. 

One  class  made  a  sandtable  [)i(ture  of  Holland, 
on  a  small  scjuare  table.  They  first  measured  the 
map  in  the  book  and  com])ared  it  with  the  size  of 
the  table  to  get  the  proper  ratio  of  proportion.  The 
table  proved  to  be  fifteen  and  one-half  times  the  size 
of  the  map.  The  use  of  the  fraction  correlated  well 
with  their  study  of  arithmetic.  Their  interest  in 
Ilollarurs  dikes  madr  ihcni  o\c'r-an.\ious  to  build 
before  the>'  had  sulTuienl  data.  After  getting  it  all 
in  they  founcl  it  necessary  to  take  out  part  of  the 
dike  from  those  |)arts  of  the  coast  whic  h  need  no 
protection,   a   mistake   which    impressed   the   truth 


154 


ILLITSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


SELECTED    PROJECTS    IX   DETAIL 


155 


more  deeply  than  if  it  had  not  been  made.  A  boy 
came  in  triumph  one  morning  with  a  herd  of  cattle 
—  small  pictures  which  he  had  cut  out  and  mounted 
for  the  daic}'.  He  was  somewhat  abashed  when 
his  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  he  had  pic- 
tures of  Jersey  cows,  but  he  quickly  rallied,  took  his 


I  ic;.  55.  —  Ilulland's  Dikes.     Sixth  Grade.     Columbia,  Mo. 

brush  and  some  ink,  and  soon  transformed  llic  Jer- 
seys into  Holland's  favorite  Holsteins.  These  inci- 
dents are  a  few  of  many  which  occurred  in  connection 
with  every  piece  of  work  anrl  in  one  way  or  another 
heli)ed  to  impress  items  of  interest. 

I'kojkci    Xo.  V 
Subject : 

History  in  .Sixtii  (irade. 

Topic  —  Review  of  I'".ari\-  I'liiled  Slates  History. 

Text  —  Ciordy,  pp.  t    122. 

Problem  nj  Projrrl.       To  test  the   value  of  i)oster 

making  as  a  means  of  review. 


156  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Problem  for  Pupils.  —  To  select  and  illustrate  the 
important  events  of  a  given  period. 

Conditions.  —  Class  of  thirty  pupils  under  a  re- 
sourceful teacher. 

Type  of  Illustration.  —  Poster  sketches. 

Time.  —  One  study  period  of  thirty  minutes  for  ac- 
tual work.  Problem  outlined  in  one  lesson.  Posters 
presented  for  discussion  at  next  recitation  period. 

Organization  of  Class.  —  Class  of  thirty  pupils 
divided  into  three  groups  each  under  a  captain  who 
assigned  topics.  Groups  had  opportunity  to  discuss 
division  of  subject  into  topics. 

Organization  of  Subject  Matter.  —  Subject  divided 
into  three  topics,  exploration,  settlement,  and  col- 
onization. Each  topic  subdivided  by  groups  into 
subjects  for  individual  posters. 

Method  in  Detail.  —  Each  member  of  a  group  made 
sketches  for  the  topics  assigned  to  him.  At  the  reci- 
tation period  these  were  hung  in  order  and  the  story 
they  told  related  by  different  members  of  the  group. 

Correlation.  —  This  problem  was  based  upon  his- 
tory. Making  the  sketches  called  into  action  the 
knowledge  of  art  principles  gained  in  drawing  lessons. 
It  required  individual  reading  for  information. 

Project  No.  VI 
Subject : 

History  in  Fifth  Grade. 

Topic  —  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition. 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL 


157 


Text  —  Our  Country's  Story,  p.  176,  and  supple- 
mentary readings. 
Problem  of  Project.  —  To  add  interest  to  the  study 
of  history  and  discover  to  what  extent  a  sandtable 


Ik;,   s''-       Li'wis  and  ("lark  I';.\|)i(lilii)n. 

ThLt  was  the  first  illustrative  proldem  un<UTtakcn  by  tills  class,  and  no  samltablo  hail 
yet  l)ccn  ()roviile<l.  A  Ixiy  olTcroil  to  hrinK  a  liox  from  homiv  It  provivl  to  be  a  small 
mortar  Imx.  It  was  not  beautiful,  but  the  picture  made  in  it  by  the  children  made  U(i  for 
anything  the  box  lacked.     (Sec  Project  VI.     Page  157) 

problem  could  be  used  to  correlate  various  phases  of 
subject  matter. 

Prnhlcni  jor  /'n/)i/s.  'io  i"ci)r(sciit  on  tin-  saiid- 
tal>lc  the  route  (;f  the  Lewis  and  ("lark  Tv\|)C(hti()n. 

Conditions.  ■'—Class  of  thirty  |)upils  under  an  ex- 
perienced teat  her. 

Form  of  Illustration.  —  Sandtabk;  illustiation. 


158  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Time.  —  Three  and  four  pupils  working  at  one 
time  in  cdd  minutes.  Total  time  about  one-half 
hour  daily  for  a  period  of  eight  days. 

Organization  of  Class.  —  Class  divided  into  four 
groups,  each  group  having  a  definite  part  of  the  sub- 
ject to  illustrate.  Different  members  of  the  groups 
worked  at  the  table  for  short  periods. 

Organization  of  Subject  Matter.  —  Topic  divided 
into  four  parts,  each  part  assigned  to  one  group,  as 
follows :  physical  features,  route  from  St.  Louis 
to  Council  Bluffs,  route  from  Council  Bluffs  to 
mountains,  route  across  mountains  to  cog,st.  Each 
pupil  wrote  a  description  of  the  part  assigned  to 
his  group. 

Method  in  Detail.  —  After  sufficient  reading  to 
become  familiar  with  the  main  points  of  the  story 
and  a  general  discussion  as  to  possible  methods, 
specific  topics  were  assigned  to  small  groups.  These 
topics  included  relative  proportions  and  distances 
on  the  map,  modeling  the  physical  features  in  relief, 
making  of  boats,  cabins,  huts,  Indian  camp,  etc., 
modeUng  human  figures,  horses,  and  wild  animals, 
planting  grass  seed  for  prairies,  representing  differ- 
ent forms  of  vegetation  in  different  sections,  setting 
flags  and  sign-posts  to  trace  the  route  of  the  ex- 
pedition. 

The  completed  illustration  showed  the  principal 
events  of  the  journey  and  the  general  appearance  of 
the  country  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  coast. 


SELECTED  PROJECTS  IN  DETAIL       1 59 

Correlation.  —  This  experiment  was  based  upon 
history.  Giving  the  proper  background  to  the  story 
required  ahnost  equal  emphasis  on  the  geographical 
features  of  the  country  traversed,  with  some  study 
of  the  habits  of  the  Indian  tribes  encountered.  The 
necessity  for  accurate  information  rcc^uired  extensive 
reading.  TelUng  the  story  orally  and  in  writing 
gave  practice  in  English.  Reducing  the  measure- 
ments of  the  map  to  the  proper  proportions  for  the 
sandtable  gave  practice  in  arithmetic.  Growing 
grass  for  the  prairies  and  representing  trees  on  the 
western  slope  directed  attention  to  the  different  sorts 
of  vegetation  and  the  reason  for  the  difference. 

Project  No.  VII 
Subject : 

History'  in  Mfth  Grade. 

Topic  —  Colonial  Life. 

Text  — Our  Country's  Stor)-,  ])p.  83-88. 

Problem  of  Project.  — To  gi\-e  a  sense  of  realit\-  to 
printed  dcscri])tions  through  the  use  of  representative 
constructions. 

Problem  for  Pupils.  — To  build  and  furnish  a  Co- 
lonial kiUhen. 

Comlilions. — -Class  of  tiiirty  pupils  under  young 
teacher  witli  one  year's  experience. 

Type  of  fllusfriition.  ---  Construction. 

Time.  Study  hour  and  odd  nu'nutes  of  small 
groujjs  for  |)eri<jd  of  one  week. 


i6o 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


Fig.  57-  —  Culomal  Home  Life.     (See  Troject  Vll.     Page  159.) 


tiG.  58.  —  Another  Colonial  House.     (See  Project  VU.     Page  159.) 


SELECTED   PROJECTS   IN  DETAIL  l6l 

Organization  of  Class.  —  After  a  general  discussion 
of  plans  for  the  house  and  its  furnishing,  the  pupils 
chose  parts  which  they  wished  to  do. 

Organization  of  Subject  Matter.  —  Construction  was 
planned  to  show  the  house,  fireplace  and  cooking 
utensils,  furniture  and  clothing. 

Detail  of  Method.  — •  The  house  was  made  from  a 
box  by  fi\'e  boys.  Various  cooking  utensils  were 
whittled  from  wood  according  to  descriptions  found 
in  the  books  read.  Dolls  were  dressed  in  Colonial 
costumes  by  the  girls.  Books  and  pictures  were 
studied  for  suggestions  and  effects. 

Correlation.  —  This  problem  was  based  upon  his- 
tory. It  involved  careful  reading  and  some  measure- 
ment, but  other  than  these  incidental  connections  no 
emphasis  was  placed  upon  related  subjects. 

Project  No.  VIII 
Subject : 

(ieography  in  Fifth  (irade. 

Topic  — •  Panama  Canal. 

Texts  —  Tarr  and  M(Muir\-,  I^)()k  II,  ]>.  2,^6. 
Carpenter's  South   .America. 

Problem  of  Project.  —  To  use  a  concrete  illustration 
in  explaining  the  operation  of  canal  lo(  ks. 

Problem  for  Pupils.  '!'(»  build  Ihc  Panama  Canal 
in  miniature  and  ojK'ralc  the  locks. 

Conditions. — Class  of  Ihirty  ])U|)ils  under  strong 
teacher. 


l62 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


Farm  of  lUuslration.  — Construction  in  cement,  and 
booklets. 

Time.  —  Work  done  by  six  boys  working  during 
half-hour  class  period  during  a  period  of  three  weeks. 


Fig.  sg.  —  Panama  Canal  and  Locks.     The  Locks 
at  the  Other  End  of  the  Taljle  were  Made  to  Oper-     i 
ate.     (See  Project  VIII.    Page  163.) 

A  mistake  caused  a  serious  discouragement  and  the 
work  rested  for  about  one  week. 

Organization  of  Class.  —  Two  groups  of  three  boys 
worked  in  turns  during  the  regular  class  period 
upon  the  construction  on  the  sandtable.     Individual 


SELECTED   PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  1 63 

pupils  contributed  minor  features,  as  model  of  steam 
shovel.  Entire  class  prepared  booklets  describing 
the  Canal. 

Organization  of  Subject  Matter.  —  Study  of'  the 
canal  used  as  an  introduction  to  South  America. 
Entire  class  read  text  and  as  many  supplementary 
books  in  addition  to  Carpenter  as  they  could  find. 
General  class  discussions  followed  the  reading. 

Method  in  Detail.  —  After  studying  the  general 
facts  concerning  the  canal,  the  construction  of  locks, 
and  the  use  of  concrete,  the  canal  was  constructed 
by  the  boys. 

The  construction  involved  much  planning  and 
careful  measurement.  When  they  thought  they  had 
completed  their  work,  water  was  poured  into  the  lake 
but  it  was  immediately  absorbed  by  the  too-porous 
surface  of  the  cement.  Tliis  required  a  resurfacing 
of  the  lake  with  a  harder  mixture  which  proved  satis- 
factory. When  water  was  poured  in  a  second  time, 
the  lake  held,  but  the  gales  j)roved  faulty,  and  a  new 
plan  was  necessary.  About  a  week  jmssed  before  the 
boys  recovered  from  this  second  disapjjoiutmcnl,  and 
revived  their  courage  sunricienli}-  to  try  some  new 
suggestions.  Success  lniall\'  crowned  their  elTorts 
and  on  visitors'  day  the  committee  in  charge  operated 
the  locks  and  took  the  two-inch  boat  up  and  down, 
not  once  but  man\-  times,  while  tlie\  piondly  ex- 
plained the  prin(ii)les  of  lock  hiiilding  lo  iheir  ad- 
miring i)arents. 


164  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Correlation.  —  This  problem  was  based  upon  geog- 
raphy. The  building  of  the  model  and  the  writing 
of  the  description  furnished  motive  for  reading. 
The  building  of  the  model  involved  a  great  deal  of 
careful  measurement  and  very  practical  arithmetic. 
The  writing  of  the  description  furnished  subject 
matter  for  language  work.  The  making  of  the  cover 
for  the  booklet,  as  well  as  the  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  illustrations  within,  involved  principles 
of  design. 

Other  Canal  Projects.  —  In  addition  to  the  problem 
described  as  Project  VIII,  other  classes  have  studied 
the  Panama  Canal  by  similar  methods  with  varying 
details,  several  of  them  under  the  direction  of  the 
same  teacher.  Of  this  series  the  first,  shown  in  Figure 
60,  made  no  attempt  at  perfect  locks,  the  general 
principle  upon  which  they  are  constructed  being 
all  that  was  stressed.  The  sandtable  project,  how- 
ever, made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  oncoming 
class  of  fourth-grade  boys  who,  when  their  turn  came 
the  next  year,  were  anxious  to  build  better  than  their 
predecessors.  Their  success  is  described  in  Project 
No.  VIII. 

The  last  of  the  series  recently  completed  is  built 
with  the  hope  that  it  may  bear  transportation  to  the  ' 
state  fair.  In  this  instance  paraffin  has  been  used  to 
make  the  locks  water-tight.  One  tier  of  locks  is 
fitted  with  gates  which  open  in  the  center  and 
swing  inward  as  in  the  real  canal.      This  form  of 


SELECTED   PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL 


165 


lock  being  hard  to  manage  in  the  material  used, 
another  tier  of  locks  is  fitted  with  a  shding  gate 
such  as  is  used  in  Western  irrigating  systems,  and 
made    water-tight.     Through    this    tier   the   boats 


Fig.  (K).  '    A  First  AltLmi>l  at  Ixick-huildiiiR.     (Sec  Other  Canal  Projects, 

Page  164.) 

arc    raised    and    lowered    from   ocean    lo  hike    and 
back  again. 

In  these  canal  projects  one  (  hicf  weakness  notice- 
able is  the  disproportionate  height  of  mountains  in 
relation  to  wi(kh  of  j)Iains.  Tin's  comes  about,  no 
doubt,  through  the  necessity  for  showing  individual 


1 66  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

features  quite  out  of  proportion  in  order  to  make 
them  sufficiently  realistic.  This  weakness  tends  to 
disappear  as  the  work  progresses.  If  we  search  our 
own  mental  pictures,  however,  we  will  doubtless  find 
them  made  up  of  exaggerated  details.  For  example, 
California  in  1849  is  to  most  people  a  mining  camp 
only.  Though  this  may  seem  at  first  an  argument 
against  illustrative  methods,  we  must  admit  that  such 
an  exaggerated  detail  is  to  be  chosen  rather  than  the 
idea  that  Maine  is  pink  and  that  cities  are  black  dots. 

Project  No.  IX 

Subject.     A  Lumber  Camp. 

(See  Figure  61.) 

Problem  of  Project.  —  To  test  the  value  of  the 
sandtable  as  an  aid  to  composition  work. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  —  To  study  the  characteristics 
of  a  lumber  camp  in  Maine,  build  a  miniature  camp 
upon  the  sandtable,  and  write  a  description  of  a 
lumber  camp. 

Conditions.  —  Class  of  thirty-five  sixth-grade 
pupils. 

Organization  of  Class.  —  All  members  of  the  class 
contributed  to  the  building  of  the  model  camp.  The 
project  as  a  whole  was  organized  by  teacher  and 
pupils  together  and  parts  assigned  to  individuals 
and  small  groups. 

Method  in  Detail.  —  After  the  selection  of  the 
topic,  the  class  read  Carpenter's  description  of  a 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IX   DETAIL 


167 


o 

o 


y. 


3 


1 68  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

lumber  camp  and  studied  various  pictures.  The 
building  of  the  model  involved  a  review  of  the 
geography  of  the  region  near  Bangor,  Maine,  where 
the  camp  was  to  be  located,  a  study  of  the  various 
trees  to  be  found  in  the  region,  the  method  of  build- 
ing the  cabin,  the  sort  of  tools  and  machinery  needed 
by  lumbermen,  and  their  dress,  habits,  and  character. 
The  completed  table  showed  a  cabin  placed  in  a 
forest  containing  several  varieties  of  timber,  a 
flume,  an  ice  road,  and  a  sawmill. 

In  the  composition  work  which  followed,  each  pupil 
imagined  himself  to  be  visiting  at  the  camp  for  a 
week.  He  kept  a  diary  of  the  events  of  the  days 
spent  there,  describing  the  operations  of  the  lumber- 
men. He  wrote  one  letter  to  some  one  at  home  de- 
scribing his  impressions.  This  project  was  among  the 
first  attempts  by  this  class  in  the  use  of  illustrative 
methods,  and  the  results  were  highly  satisfactory  to 
both  teacher  and  pupils. 

Another  Lumber  Camp.  —  Figure  62  shows  a 
miniature  lumber  camp  arranged  by  a  fifth-grade 
class  as  a  side  light  on  a  topic  in  geography.  In 
this  instance  the  topic  was  assigned  by  the  teacher 
to  a  group  of  boys  who  prepared  their  illustration 
somewhat  crudely.  After  the  class  had  examined 
the  work  another  group  asked  permission  to  make 
another  illustration,  as  they  felt  sure  they  could  make 
a  sawmill  that  would  work.  The  illustration  shows 
the  work  of  the  second  group.     One  boy  brought  a 


SELECTED    PROJECTS    IN   DETAIL 


169 


lyo  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

toy  engine  operated  by  alcohol.  From  a  piece  of 
tin,  a  spool,  a  string,  a  screw,  and  a  block  of  wood, 
they  constructed  a  circular  saw  which,  when  driven 
by  the  small  steam  engine,  would  saw  cardboard 
and  thin  pieces  of  wood.  Their  pride  in  their  success 
was  most  stimulating,  both  to  themselves  and  to 
others. 

Project  No.  X 

Subject.     The   Rotation   and   Revolution  of  the 

Earth. 

(See  Figure  63.) 

Problem  of  Project.  —  To  find  a  way  of  making  this 
troublesome  idea  clearer  to  a  group  of  sixth-grade 
pupils  in  the  rural  school. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  —  To  make  a  simi)le  piece  of 
apparatus  which  would  show  the  two  motions  of  the 
earth. 

Conditions.  —  A  one-room  rural  school  without 
wall  maps,  globe,  or  other  common  equipment,  and 
without  funds  with  which  to  purchase  materials. 

Detail  of  Method.  —  On  finding  the  class  troubled 
by  the  problem  in  question,  it  was  suggested  that 
they  find  a  long  stick  and  fasten  one  end  loosely  to  a 
heavy  block  of  wood  so  that  it  could  be  revolved 
around  the  fastening.  At  the  outer  end  of  the  stick 
they  were  to  set  a  wire  bent  at  an  angle  of  23^^  degrees 
to  represent  the  axis  of  the  earth.  At  the  inner  end 
of  the  stick  they  were  to  fasten  a  small  candle  to  rep- 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  171 

resent  the  sun.  It  was  agreed  to  use  an  apple  for  the 
earth. 

No  further  directions  were  given.  Several  boys 
agreed  to  find  materials  and  have  the  apparatus  ready 
when  the  supervisor  came  again.  They  found  a 
scrap  of  4X4  lumber  and  a  piece  of  yardstick 
which  they  arranged  as  directed.  The  candle  was 
supported  by  a  small  nail  driven  through  from  the 
lower  side  of  the  stick  beside  the  nail  which  fastened 
the  stick  to  the  block.  A  very  crooked  piece  of  bail- 
ing wire,  only  partially  straightened,  did  duty  for  the 
axis.  On  the  next  visit  of  the  supervisor  an  a]:)ple 
was  imi)aled  on  the  wire,  the  candle  lighted,  and  the 
apple  revolved  about  the  candle,  or  better  the  earth 
revolved  about  the  sun,  with  the  wire  axis  pointed 
steadily  to  the  north.  At  first,  to  keep  the  axis  in 
proper  position,  a  string  was  tied  to  the  north  pole 
and  fastened  to  a  nail  on  the  north  wall  which  did 
duty  for  the  North  Star,  as  a  suggestion  <»t'  the 
mysterious  force  which  ])ulls  the  north  \)()\r  always 
in  the  same  direction.  The  idea  estabhshed,  the 
string  l)ecame  superfluous  and  was  discarded.  The 
"earth"  was  placed  in  various  relations  to  the  "sun" 
and  the  seasons  ch'scussed.  The  dehglited  and  en- 
lightened exj)ression  on  tlie  faces  of  the  chihh'en  as 
they  said,  "Oh,  now  I  see  how  it  is,"  seemed  ample 
justification  of  the  method. 

Tile  ai)jxiratus  was  to  \)v  gixcn  to  the  sujiervisor 
when  they  were  through  with  it,  but  soon  afterwards 


172 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


the  school  had  a  night  visit  from  tramps  who  used  it 
for  kindling.  The  boys  offered  to  make  another  and 
better  one  for  the  supervisor,  which  they  did,  its 
photograph  being  shown  in  Figure  63.  The  first 
model  was  very  rough  and  crude,  but  the  second  was 
made  from  better  material  and  put  together  more 


Fig.  63.  —  Apparatus  Showing  Motions  of  the  Earth.     Made  by  boys  of  Carlisle 
Rural  School,  Boone  County,  Missouri.     (See  p.  170.) 

accurately.  The  wire  was  straight  and  bent  to  better 
angles.  A  hole  was  bored  part  way  through  the  long 
stick  so  that  the  candle  could  be  set  directly  over  the 
nail  upon  which  the  stick  revolved,  thus  putting  the 
"sun"  in  the  exact  center  instead  of  a  Httle  to  one 
side.  Instead  of  an  apple,  a  rubber  ball  was  pur- 
chased and  the  continents  outHned  upon  it  with  ink. 
These  improvements  in  the  second  rendering  may 


SELECTED   PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  1 73 

be  counted  as  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  statement 
above  (sandtable  criticism)  that  the  crudity  of  free 
expression  does  not  estabhsh  low  ideals  of  workman- 
ship. This  and  many  similar  instances  hav^e  con- 
vinced the  author  that  normal  children  want  to  "do 
better  the  next  time,"  when  the  work  in  hand  is  on 
the  level  of  their  appreciation  and  is  of  interest  to 
them. 

Project  No.  XI 

Subject.     Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 
(Sec  Figure  64.) 

Problem  of  Project.  —  To  stimulate  an  emotional 
appreciation  of  the  poem  through  free  expression  in 
picture-making. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  —  To  express  their  ideas  of 
various  situations  in  the  poem  In-  means  of  pictures. 

Conditions.  -  A  class  of  sixth-grade  pupils  working 
in  the  room  with  a  fifth  grade  under  a  resourceful 
teacher. 

Detail  of  Method.  —  AfliT  nailiiig  a  |)ait  i»l'  the 
poem  and  ch'scussing  a  jKirticukir  situation  and  the 
probable  feeh'ng  of  the  characters,  each  member  of 
the  class  tried  to  express  his  i(k'ain  a  free-hand  sketch.' 
After  the  whole  poem  had  been  studied  the  j)upils 
were  asked  to  select  passages  which  they  liked  and 
illustrate  them.  A  few  specimens  of  the  results  are 
shown  in  the  acc()mi)anying  illustration.  These 
sketches  were  not  made  as  a  i)art  of  the  drawing  lesson 


1/4 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


Fig.  64.  —  Miles  Staiidish. 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  1 75 

and  some  members  of  the  class  had  never  tried  to 
draw  before.  In  many  instances  the  work  was  very 
crude  in  technique,  but  nearly  every  one  expressed 
well  the  downcast  attitude  of  John  Alden  on  his  un- 
wilHng  errand,  the  first  glimpse  of  the  Indians  by  the 
army,  and  other  striking  scenes.  The  act  of  making 
the  picture  deepened  the  impressions  gained  through 
the  reading  and  intensified  the  emotional  response 
through  the  necessity,  for  the  time  being,  of  taking 
on  the  personahty  of  the  character  "and  trying  to 
feel  as  he  felt." 

Project  No.  XII 

Subject.     Nature  Study  Books  on  Trees. 

Problem  of  Project.  —  To  test  the  effect  of  throw- 
ing j)U])ils  wholly  ui)()n  their  own  responsibility  in 
composition  work. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  — To  preserve  in  attractive 
form  the  data  collected  in  a  slu(l\-  of  trees  and  com- 
plete the  booklet  wilhouL  special  criticism  from  the 
teacher. 

Method  ill  Drill il.  Tlic  i)lan  for  these  Tree  Book- 
lets had  been  ouHincd  as  the  crowning  effort  of  the 
year,  when  it  was  (Ktided  to  test  the  power  ot  the 
j)Uj)ils  to  judge  their  own  work  and  bring  it  to  a  high 
standard.  The  i)lan  included  free-hand  sketches  of 
various  twigs  and  buds,a  sket(  h  of  t  he  tree,  a  descri]>- 
tion  of  its  habits  of  growth  and  its  usefulness.  An 
appropriate   cover   was   to    be   designed    under    the 


176 


ILLUSTIL\TIVE   HANDWORK 


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SELECTED   PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  1 77 

guidance  of  the  drawing  teacher.  Enthusiasm  was 
keen  to  make  these  books  exceptionally  fine.  Usu- 
ally the  teacher  inspected  a  rough  draft  of  the  written 
work  before  it  was  copied  on  the  final  paper.  In 
this  case  it  was  agreed  that  the  pupils  should  com- 
plete the  book,  even  to  the  final  tying  of  the  leaves 
into  the  cover,  before  submitting  it  for  the  teacher's 
approval.  They  were  to  be  free  to  ask  advice  when- 
ever they  were  in  doubt,  to  consult  the  dictionary 
for  doubtful  spellings,  and  in  other  ways  to  behave 
as  do  people  outside  of  school  when  they  have  an 
imi)ortant  piece  of  work  on  hand.  They  were  to 
think  first  and  be  sure  of  themselves,  instead  of  de- 
pending on  someone  to  tell  them  what  to  say. 

Results.  —  The  results  were  highly  satisfactory. 
The  bo(jks  were  most  creditable  both  inside  and  out. 
In  the  composition  work  nearly  one-third  had  no  mis- 
takes in  spelling  or  in  the  punctuation  and  grammati- 
cal forms  for  which  the  children,  in  consideration  of 
their  training  in  English,  could  he  held  accountable. 

Project  No.  XllI 

Subject.     The  Evolution  of  Methods  of  Trax'cl. 
(See  Figures  66-80.) 

Prohlrm  oj  /'rojrrt.  — To  give  to  sixth-grade  i)uj)ils 
a  general  idea  of  the  steps  in  the  de\-elo])menf  of 
methods  of  travel  by  land  and  water. 

Problem  oj  Pupils.  —  To  find  oul  iIk  particulars  of 
some  one  method  of  tra\el,   make  a  model   of  (he 

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SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL 


179 


I'iG.  07.  —  A  I'rairic  Schuoncr. 

vehicle,  and  explain  its  use  to  the  other  members  of 
the  class. 

Conditions.  —  A  class  of  thirty-five  pupils  under  a 
strong  teacher. 

Organization  of  Class.  —  Class  divided  into  two 
divisions,  one  to  study  travel  by  land  ;  the  other, 
travel   by   water.     Each    division   subdi\ided    into 


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ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


Fig.  6g.  —  An  Electric  Car. 


Fig.  70.  —  .\n  Auti)ni()l)ili' 


Fig.  71.  —  An  Airship. 


small  groups  of  two 
or  three  pupils  to 
whom  was  assigned 
some  one  phase  of 
the  subject. 

Detail  of  Method. 
—  After  a  general 
discussion  of  the 
subject,  the  class 
was  requested  to 
find  out  as  many- 
interesting  items  as 
possible,  to  con- 
tribute to  a  second 
discussion  a  day  or 
two  later.  After  the 
second  discussion  it 
was  possible  to  make 
a  Hst  of  projects  and 
apportion  them  to 
the  several  small 
groups  for  individual 
study.  Then  began 
a  vigorous  searching 
of  all  books  which 
would  give  further 
information  on  the 
topics  assigned.  In 
the    words    of    the 


SELECTED  PROJECTS  IN  DETAIL 


l8l 


teacher,    "They    kept    the    path    to    the    library 
hot." 

As  soon  as  sufficient  data  were  secured  by  a  group, 
work  was  begun  upon  the  model.     This   involved 


i'lG.  7-'.     -  (Jii  a  Log.     On  a  Ilulluw  Log. 

planning  what  to  make  and  how  to  make  it,  what 
material  to  use  and  where  to  get  it.  In  many  in- 
stances the  data  secured  proved  insufficient  and 
another  trip  to  the  librar}'  was  demanded  and  more 


!■  lo.  7 j.       Lanof  and  kowlnwl. 


Fig.  74.  —  A  Greek  Galley. 


Fig.  75.  —  A  Sailboat. 
182 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL 


183 


careful  reading  followed.  In  other  instances  the  first 
attempt  at  construction  failed  to  meet  the  ideals  of 
the  makers  and  they  tried  again  before  they  were 
willing  to  exhibit  their  production  to  the  class. 


I'Kj.  70.  —  A  .>lcni  wliicl  anil  llursi-  i»iuir. 

It  is  impossible  in  this  brief  descrijition  to  do  more 
than  indicate  the  scope  of  tlie  problem.  The  accom- 
panying illustrations,  Figs.  66  to  80  inclusive,  are 
made  from  i)iiot()- 
graphs  (;f  the  results 
as  the  author  saw 
them.  The  |)rid('  of 
the  childri-n  in  their 
finished  work  was 
equaled  only  by  the 
enthusiasm  with 
which  they  harl 
worked  and  llie  joy 
with  which  they  an-  i-,,;.  77.     Kivcr  .sicamiK^at. 


1 84 


ILLUSTRATIVE  HANDWORK 


Fig.  78. — ^  Battlesliip. 


ticipated  the  next  ^^  problem. ^^     This  attitude  of  mind 
would   have  been   worth   the  effort  even  had   the 

information  gained 
been  less  valuable 
and  the  develop- 
ment in  resourceful- 
ness less  fruitful. 

A  project  of  this 
sort  encourages  in- 
dependent study 
and  helps  the  pupil 
not  only  to  rely  upon 
himself  but  to  make 
sure  of  his  informa- 
tion. Each  group  is  anxious  to  make  a  good  show- 
ing before  the  class.  "The  feeling  of  the  audience" 
is  strong  in  such  instances,  in  contrast  to  the  feel- 
ing aroused  by  the 
ordinary  quiz  recita- 
tion when  the  pupil 
is  conscious  that 
pupils  as  well  as 
teacher  know  all  he 
knows  and  perhaps 
more.  Under  such 
circumstances  he 
cannot  speak  with 
the  same  enthusiasm 

he    feels    when    he    is  fig.  7g.  —  Occan  Liner. 


Fig.  8o.  —  Motor  Boat. 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL  18  = 

imparting  interest- 
ing information  to 
an  ^eager  audience. 
Such  projects  also 
apply  and  test  the 
pupil's  knowledge  in 
other  fields,  as,  meas- 
urement, art  values,  use  of  clear,  well-chosen  English 
in  explanation,  etc. 

Suggested  topics  for  similar  treatment : 

Evolution  of  methods  of  measuring  time. 

Evolution  of  methods  of  lighting. 

Evolution  of  methods  of  writing. 

Evolution  of  methods  of  cooking. 

Evolution  of  harvesting  machines. 

Evolution  of  various  woodworking  tools. 

Evolution  of  various  modern  inventions. 

Project  No.  XIV 

Subject.     A  Study  of  Bridge  HuihHng. 
(Sec  Figures  81-86.) 

Problem  of  Project.  —  To  open  the  eyes  of  thi-  cliil- 
dren  that  they  may  see  deeper  lluiii  the  surface  of 
some  of  our  everyday  conveniences,  and  lo  awaken 
an  interest  in  inthislrial  j)rol)lems. 

Problem  of  I'upils. — To  (oiistrucl  a  model  of 
some  one  tyjK'  of  bridge  and  study  its  value  and 
use. 

Condilions.  — Prohlciii  under  the  direction  of  tlie 


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SELECTED   PROJECTS    IX   DETAIL  187 

principal  of  a  building  who  taught  the  seventh  grade 
and  assigned  parts  to  other  grades. 

Organization  of  Classes. 

First  grade  — •  Paper  cutting  lessons  on  monkey 
bridge  and  grapevine  bridge. 

Second  grade  —  Study  of  the  beaver  and  building 
of  a  beaver  dam  on  the  sandtable. 

Third  grade  —  Bridge  from  fallen  trees,  with  a 
study  of  corduroy  roads. 

Fourth  grade  —  Single  span  wooden  bridge. 

Fifth  grade  took  no  part,  being  engaged  upon  a 
Panama  Canal  project. 

Sixth  grade  —  Covered  bridge  and  cement  bridge. 

Seventh  grade  —  Drawbridge,  jack-knife  bridge, 
suspension  bridges  of  several  t^'pes. 

In  the  upper  grades  projects  were  apportioned  to 
groups  of  three  boys  each,  the  study  being  under- 
taken as  distinctively  a  boys'  problem. 

Method  ill  Detail.  —  In  ihv  ui)[)er  grades  the  sub- 
ject was  discussed  as  an  inckistry  in  which  some 
of  the  boys  might  some  day  be  engaged,  which 
gave  a  j)revocalional  llaxor  to  the  work.  Con- 
nection was  made  with  other  subjects  where  op- 
portunity offered, —  for  exanii)Ie,  the  suspension 
bridge  in  the  mountains  of  Cliina,  shown  in  the 
illustration. 

Kach  grouj)  made  a  study  of  its  particular  bridge 
and  made  plans  for  theconst iin  linn  df  a  model.  'Die 
seventh-grade  boys  worked  out  tiuir  models  in  the 


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SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL 


189 


manual  arts  shop, 
under  the  direction 
of  the  instructor. 
The  other  models 
were  made  in  the 
regular  classrooms. 
In  each  room  the 
projects  were  made 
a  subject  of  class 
study.  The  stucly 
developed  much 
material  suitable 
for  composition 
work,  but  as  it  was 
undertaken  near 
the  close  of  ihc 
year,  time  would 
not  {)ermit  an  ex- 
haustive use  of  its 
possibiUtics.  When 
the  [)rojects  were 
complete  they  were 
assembled  on  three 
sandtal^les  in  the 
lower  hall.  The  ac- 
companying illus- 
trations are  taken 
from  photographs 
of  these  sand  tables. 


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ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


Other  Bridge  Problems.  —  A  study  of  bridges  was 
made  in  certain  other  schools,  some  of  the  results 
of  which  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations. 


Fig.  84.  —  Suspension  Britlgc.     Sixth  Grade,  Humboldt  School, 
St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

Full  details  are  not  available  as  to  the  organization 
of  these  projects,  but  they  were  made  a  part  of  class 
work  to  some  extent.     In  addition  clubs  were  organ- 


FiG.  85.  —Block  Signal,  Swing  Bridge,  and  Drawbridge.     B.  Fifth  Grade, 
McKinley  School,  St.  Joseph,  Mo.     (See  Project  14.    Page  185.) 


SELECTED    PROJECTS   IN   DETAIL 


191 


Fig.  86.  —  Suspension  Bridge.     Si.xth  Grade,  Garficlil  Sthmil.     .Si.  Josiph,  Mo. 

ized  among  boys  having  a  certain  sort  of  building 
toys  and  a  high  degree  of  interest  generated  in  the 
mechanical  possibiHties  of  these  toys.  Tlie  pictures 
speak  for  themselves  and  need  no  comment. 


Project  No.  XV 

Subject.     .\  Coal  Mine. 

(Sec  Figure  87.) 

Problem  of  Project. — ^  To  test  the  j)o\vcr  of  con- 
crete expression,  to  awaken  interest,  and  arouse 
energy. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  To  build  U])on  the  sandtable 
a  miniature  coal  mine,  in  connection  with  a  study 
of  industries  in  geography. 

Comlitions.  — A  class  of  twi-nty  fifth  grade  pu|)ils 
working   with   a   sixth-grade    (lass   under    a   strong 


/ 


192 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


tin 


V 
t/5 


2 
13 


o 


13 


.a 


C3 
O 


o 


SELECTED  PROJECTS  IN  DETAIL       1 93 

teacher.  This  was  the  first  attempt  by  this  class 
at  work  of  this  sort.  No  materials  were  provided 
and  the  table  used  was  a  makeshift.     . 

Method  in  Detail.  —  After  a  discussion  of  the  prob- 
lem and  plans  for  its  solution,  the  boys  brought  in 
some  yellow  cla}'  from  a  corner  of  the  school  lot, 
there  being  no  sand  available.  Interest  waxed  strong, 
and  the  bad  boy  who  was  a  frequent  truant  and  an 
unwilling  worker  when  in  school,  became  the  leader 
in  the  building  process.  He  not  on!}-  worked  when 
others  worked,  but  stayed  after  school  and  only  left 
reluctantly  when  the  teacher  was  read}'  to  close  tlie 
doors.  He  made  a  journey  ten  miles  into  the  country 
on  Saturday  to  get  some  definite  details  to  "show 
you  how  it  ought  to  be." 

The  finished  model  as  shown  in  T'igure  87  repre- 
sented a  drift  mine  j)roi)erly  ventilated  with  the 
air  shaft  shown  at  the  left  abo\e  the  slied.  By  means 
of  a  string  attached  to  the  two  ends  of  ihc  (oal  car, 
when  full  of  coal  it  could  be  rolled  oiil  of  tin-  mine 
and  made  to  dump  its  cargo  and  nlurn  for  more. 
By  an  ingenious  j)lacing  of  a  hole  in  1  he  lop  behind  1  he 
sign,  it  was  possible  for  the  o])erator  to  retill  the  car 
while  the  visitor's  attention  was  dislra(  ted  by  other 
details.  The  rar  would  then  roll  out  and  deposit 
a  second  load,  and  leave  the  \isitor  wondering  how 
many  small  miners  were  really  at  work  inside.  To  all 
of  us,  big  and  little,  the  creations  of  our  hands  are 
precious,  and  tin-  miner  with  the  lamp  on  his  cap 
o 


194  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

does  not  appear  in  the  illustration  because  the  photo- 
graph was  taken  on  Saturday  when  the  miner  was 
packed  away  in  cotton  for  safe-keeping.  He  was  only 
a  clay  miner,  but  he  was  very  real  and  precious  to  the 
children.  ' 

Project  No.  XVI 

Subject.     A  Circus  Parade. 

(See  Figure  88.) 

Problem  of  Project.  — ■  To  use  the  interest  in  animals 
and  the  circus  as  a  motive  for  art,  geography,  and 
composition. 

Problem  of  Pupils.  —  To  find  out  interesting  facts 
concerning  amimals ;  to  draw  and  make  in  wood  one 
or  more  animals. 

Conditions.  —  One  of  the  regular  projects  of  a 
teachers'  training  class  in  handwork,  also  worked 
out  by  several  groups  of  children.  This  report  in- 
cludes items  common  to  all. 

Organization  of  Class.  —  The  subject  of  the  circus 
animals  was  discussed  by  the  class  as  a  whole. 
Animals  to  be  made  were  selected  and  assigned  to 
individuals.  Information  concerning  the  animal 
assigned  was  collected  by  the  student  and  preserved 
in  the  form  of  a  booklet. 

Method  in  Detail.  —  In  the  discussion,  attention 
was  directed  to  the  habits  of  the  animal  in  question, 
its  habitat,  food,  si^e,  color,  value  to  man  and  nature 
of  the  value.     The  various  members  of  the  class 


SELECTED   PROJECTS    IN   DETAIL 


195 


196  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

consulted  all  available  sources  of  information  for 
the  facts  desired,  they  brought  in  all  available  pic- 
tures and  began  sketching  the  animal  assigned. 
When  a  fairly  good  sketch  was  secured,  a  pattern 
was  made  by  drawing  a  profile  outline  of  the  animal 
into  a  rectangle  proportioned  to  suit  the  extreme 
length  and  height  of  the  average  of  the  species,  using 
the  ratio  of  one  inch  to  a  foot  of  the  actual  measure- 
ments. (The  pattern  sketch  is  not  a  perspective 
sketch  and  all  four  feet  of  the  animal  must  touch  the 
base  line,  otherwise  the  animal  will  not  stand  when 
completed.)  From  the  pattern  sketch,  section  pat- 
terns were  made,  one  for  head,  body,  and  tail,  with- 
out legs ;  one  for  each  side  with  body  and  legs  but 
without  head  or  tail.  The  three  patterns  were  then 
drawn  upon  thin  wood  and  sawed  out  with  a  cop- 
ping saw.  (It  is  important  in  placing  the  patterns 
on  the  wood  to  see  that  all  frail  ])arts,  as  legs  and  tails, 
are  laid  lengthwise  of  the  grain  of  the  wood.)  After 
the  parts  were  sawed  out,  they  were  nailed  together 
and  the  animal  colored  with  crayon  or  water  color. 
In  the  making  of  the  books  which  accompanied  this 
work  each  student  was  left  free  to  write  about  one  or 
more  animals  as  desired.  Some  books  gave  extended 
details  concerning  one  animal.  Some  students  ex- 
changed data  and  wrote  about  several  animals  under 
an  appropriate  title. 

Correlation.  —  This  project  makes  a  strong  appeal 
to  boys  in  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade.     This  is 


SELECTED  PROJECTS  IN  DETAIL        1 97 

an  important  item,  since  so  much  of  the  usual  school 
work  is  somewhat  girhsh  in  character  and  fails  to 
attract  boys  of  this  age.  The  project  may  be  closely 
related  to  geography  by  emphasis  upon  the  habitat 
of  the  animal.  The  book  may  include  color  maps 
on  printed  or  hectographed  outlines,  showing  the 
regions  in  which  the  animal  is  to  be  found.  The 
project  may  be  closely  correlated  with  arithmetic 
by  studying  the  commercial  value  of  the  animal  and 
its  products.  The  information  so  gained  may  be 
made  a  part  of  the  booklet.  Gaining  the  needed 
information  gives  a  strong  motive  to  reading  and  may 
be  used  by  the  teacher  as  an  opportunity  for  teaching 
the  pupil  how  to  set  about  an  independent  investi- 
gation and  how  to  arrange  the  data  collected.  This 
involves  both  reading  and  composition.  The  art 
element  is  promounced  in  this  project.  In  addition 
to  the  sketching  of  the  outline,  making  the  patterns 
involves  a  careful  observation  of  anatom\-  in  order 
to  get  good  shoulder  and  rumj)  lines  on  ihr  sides. 
The  coloring  of  the  animal  is  also  a  good  art 
problem. 

In  the  sawing  out  iind  i)utting  together  of  jxirts, 
this  project  ( loscly  apj)roaches  the  technical  field, 
and  with  or  without  the  correlated  bookwork,  forms 
a  very  suitable  project  for  beginning  woodwork. 
Used  with  the  accompanying  bookwork  and  as  the 
motive  for  such  work,  the  projec  L  belongs  in  the  class 
of  work  described  earlier  as  representative  i)roblems, 


\ 


198  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


since,  when  the  project  is  used  in  this  way,  the  current 
of  thought  flows  from  the  handwork  to  the  related 
subject  matter.  The  project  may,  however,  be 
used  in  a  purely  illustrative  sense  when  it  will  serve 
as  a  means  of  adding  interest  to  regular  subject 
matter,  —  for  example,  at  the  time  when  the  class 
is  studying  the  animals  of  North  America  in  geog- 
raphy. The  project  may  also  be  used  in  modified 
form  for  younger  pupils  by  making  the  animals  of 
cardboard  instead  of  wood. 

Project  No.  XVII 

Subject.     The  Planing  Mill. 

Problem  of  Project.  —  To  show  whether  the  attempt 
to  construct  would  help  develop  clear  ideas  about 
complicated  machines,  thus  justifying  the  process  as 
a  method  of  study  for  beginners. 

Problem  of  Sttddent.  — ■  To  construct  a  rough  model 
of  a  machine  which  would  show  its  general  propor- 
tions and  chief  characteristics. 

Conditions.  —  A  group  of  four  students  in  a  teach- 
ers' training  class,  composed  of  three  young  women 
who  knew  nothing  of  the  machines  used  in  a  planing 
mill,  and  one  man,  a  graduate  student  in  Manual 
Arts.  The  attitude  of  the  man  at  the  beginning  was 
highly  skeptical.  Being  acquainted  with  the  intrica- 
cies of  the  machines  he  knew  that  they  could  not  be 
adequately  represented  by  rough  models  and  he  was 
troubled  about  the    details.     The   attitude  of    the 


•      SELECTED    PROJECTS    IN    DETAfL  199 

young  women  was  that  of  curiosity  and  interest  in 
a  new  idea,  accompanied  by  bewilderment  over  its 
complexity. 

Organization. — The  members  were  to  work  in 
pairs,  each  pair  to  make  models  of  two  machines. 
The  machines  selected  were  planer,  circular  saw, 
band  saw,  and  sanding  machine. 

Detail  of  Method.  —  The  group  was  sent  to  \isit 
the  manual  training  shop  to  insjK'ct  all  machines  and 
get  data  for  making  models  of  the  ones  assigned. 

On  aj)j)earance  in  the  classroom  afterwards  there 
was  still  evident  bewilderment  as  lo  a  method  of  at- 
tack. All  assented  to  the  remark  of  one  student, 
"It  seemed  ])lain  enough  while  we  were  in  llie  shop 
and  they  were  e.\i)laining  the  machines  to  us."  After 
permitting  some  random  attempts  tiu-  instructor 
suggested  a  second  visit  to  the  sho])  whit  h  was  eagerly 
agreed  upon.  On  the  return  to  tlie  classroom  it  was 
evident  that  they  had  really  srni  on  the  second  tri]), 
and  the  building  of  the  models  began  in  earnest. 
Only  the  main  features  of  each  were  alleni|ile(l. 
The  voung  women  had  (  (tnsiderahle  dillKMllN  in 
adjusting  belts  and  keeping  tin-  |)ro|)er  relat  ionshij) 
between  wheels  and  shafts.  'I'he  man  had  trouble 
in  tr\ing  to  forget  some  of  the  things  In-  knew  and  to 
put  himself  on  the  level  of  the  untaught  (hild.  He 
was  in(  lined  to  try  to  show  many  minor  details  un- 
imj)ort,'inl  in  the  jiroject  in  hanrl.  though  useful  in 
the  real  ma(  hine. 


200  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK  • 

Results.  —  When  the  project  was  completed  the 
students  were  asked  to  express  themselves  freely  as 
to  their  gain.  The  three  young  women  enthusias- 
tically agreed  that  the  planing  mill  was  now  a  familiar 
friend  and  not  a  mystery ;  that  they  had  gained  a 
general  idea  which,  though  incomplete  in  detail,  was 
truthful  and  which  gave  the  term  "planing  mill" 
a  new  and  interesting  meaning  to  them.  The  man, 
though  not  having  added  to  his  personal  knowledge 
of  the  machines  in  question,  admitted  that  the 
method  was  helpful  to  the  beginner  who  knew  nothing 
of  machines  and  that  it  was  likely  to  engender  a  de- 
sire for  further  study. 

This  project,  though  not  the  work  of  children  as 
are  all  others  here  outlined,  is  offered  as  evidence  that 
the  process  of  making  aids  much  in  the  study  of  many 
problems.  The  group  felt  satisfied  at  the  end  of  the 
first  visit  that  they  had  learned  much  about  wood- 
working machines.  The  attempt  to  give  tangible 
expression  to  their  ideas  proved  to  them  that  they 
had  not  observed  as  carefully  as  they  had  supposed. 

The  author  wishes  to  raise  the  question  whether 
or  not  much  of  our  teaching  falls  short  of  its  purpose 
and  fails  to  make  a  lasting  imi)ression  upon  the 
children  because  we  stop  too  early  and  leave  the 
children  at  the  point  reached  by  this  group  at  the  end 
of  the  first  visit.  Had  nothing  more  been  done  in 
this  case,  the  impressions  would  soon  have  faded 
into  vague  nothingness. 


CHAPTER  \T 
REPORT  OF  TEACHERS,   WITH  SUMMARY  i 

The  following  questions  were  put  to  the  teachers 
who  assisted  in  working  out  the  projects.  Ten 
teachers  contributed  to  the  work. 


Give  length  of  study  and  recitation  periods  in  history  and 
geography. 


History 

study 

recitation , 

total  study  and  recitation 
Geography 
'  study 

recitation 

total  study  and  recitation 


No. 

MIN 

.  Daily 

go 

60 

so 

40 

30 

2S 

20 

I 

2 
4 

5 
5 

I 

I 

I 

4 

5 

I 

2 

5 

2 

I 

I 

3 

5 

5 

5 

IS 


Average  daily  period  for  each  subject  58  minutes. 

'This  rcpf)rt  is  taken,  withuut  nKKlifKuliun,  frum  the  thesis  where  it 
first  appeared. 

201 


202  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

II 

Did  you  use  extra  time  for  illustrative  work,  over  and 
above  the  total  for  study  and  recitation,  and  how  much? 

Answers  vary  from  "none  at  all"  to  "one  hour  some 
weeks,  but  not  every  week." 

HI 

Was  the  extra  time  taken  in  school  hours  or  out  of  school 
hours  ?  Answer  :  In  school  hours  —  4  ;  out  of  school  hours 
—  5  ;    varied  —  i. 

IV 

Did  the  illustrative  work  interfere  with  work  in  other  sub- 
jects? Answer:  (i)  By  taking  time  from  them:  No — 10. 
(2)  By  distracting  attention :   No  —  6 ;   a  little  —  4, 

V 

Was  the  interference  justified  by  the  increased  interest  in 
the  work?     Answer:   Yes —  10  (with  emphasis). 

VI 

Has  illustrative  work  had  a  tendency  to  increase  interest  ? 
Answer:  (i)  In  the  subject,  yes — 10;  in  related  reading, 
yes —  10;  in  art  appreciation,  yes —  10;  in  the  interest  of 
patrons,  yes  —  7  ;   some  —  i ;   not  sure  —  2. 

VII 

Has  illustrative  work  helped  to  hold  the  interest  of  pupils 
otherwise  indifferent  ?  Answer :  Yes  —  7  ;  a  few  —  2  ; 
nearly  always  —  i . 

VHI 

Have  illustrative  methods  helped  any  backward  pupils  to 
a  clearer  understanding  of  these  or  other  suljjects?  Answer : 
Yes  —  7;   some  —  2;   not  sure — i. 


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204 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


IX 

Does  the  use  of  booklets  increase  interest  in  composition, 
i.e.  in  having  something  interesting  to  say  and  in  saying  it 
well,  not  merely  in  making  a  pretty  book?  Answer:  Yes, 
decidedly  —  3  ;  yes,  for  most  pupils  —  i ;  yes  —  5  ;  not 
sure  —  I. 

X 

Have  you  noticed  any  differences  between  boys  and  girls 
in  interest  in  illustrative  work?  In  preference  for  different 
forms  of  work  ?  Answer :  Boys  prefer  building  —  5  ;  girls 
are  more  careful  —  4 ;  girls  stick  to  their  work  better  —  2  ; 
girls  Uke  posters  and  books  better  —  3  ;  not  much  difference 

—  5- 

The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  failures  in 

grades  five,  six,  and  seven  for  the  last  year  preceding  and 

the    two   years    following    the    introduction    of   illustrative 

methods. 


Grade 

IQIO-II 

1911-12 

i 

1912-13 

Five 

Six 

Seven     .     .     .     .     .     . 

28.7% 

9-7% 
8.9% 

12.5% 
8.2% 

4.5,% 

11.0% 

5-3% 
2.0% 

These  figures  were  based  upon  general  averages  for  all 
subjects.  The  figures  for  191 2-13  include  some  conditioned 
pupils  in  grades  five  and  six.  (See  comment  on  page  208 
as  to  the  relative  value  of  these  figures.) 

Summary.  —  The  problem  which  forms  the  basis 
of  this  study,  taken  with  its  limitations,  may  be  re- 
stated thus : 


REPORT   OF   TEACHERS,    WITH    SUMMARY        205 


2o6  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

To  discover  the  extent  to  which  handwork  may 
be  used  in  the  ordinary  schoolroom  (by  teachers 
having  no  technical  training)  for  the  purpose  of  fa- 
cilitating the  study  of  geography  and  history,  yet 
without  interfering  with  other  required  work,  or 
adding  greatly  to  expense. 

The  results  of  the  experiments  seein  to  justify 
certain  conclusions  : 

(i)  Concerning  expense : 

The  figures  here  given  are  for  the  work  of  the 
second  year ;  figures  for  the  first  year's  work  were 
not  available.  The  first  year's  expense  included 
lumber  for  sandtables,  which  were  built  by  the 
janitors,  and  one  small  bill  for  thin  wood  and  paper. 
The  total  was  less  than  the  total  for  the  second  year. 

Expense,  for  second  year  : 

Amount  spent  for  equipment $42.00 

(Including  saws,  hammers,  jars  for  clay) 

Amount  spent  for  material 11.76 

Total  expense $53-76 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  classes  supplied 

with  material 1018 

Average  cost  per  pupil $.05 

Cost  of  material  per  pupil .01 

Comment  upon  these  figures  is  unnecessary. 
(2)  Concerning  time  required  for  illustrative  work  : 
The  question  of  actual  time  spent  upon  illustrative 
work,  especially  upon  cooperative  problems  such  as 


REPORT   OF   TEACHERS,    WITH   SUMMARY        207 

sandtable  illustrations,  is  very  hard  to  calculate  with 
great  accuracy.     This  is  so  for  the  following  reasons  : 

Pupils  must  work  upon  these  problems  in  small 
groups.  In  order  to  accomplish  any  large  project 
in  reasonable  time  the  groups  must  follow  each  other 
in  quick  succession.  To  this  end  the  "odd  minutes" 
which  individual  pupils  find  at  various  periods  in  the 
day,  and  which  otherwise  are  frequently  worse  than 
wasted,  may  be  used  upon  illustrative  problems  to 
good  advantage  without  affecting  the  general  pro- 
gram in  any  way. 

The  teacher  may  know  very  positively  that  the  work 
has  not  been  done  wholly  during  the  period  and  that 
it  has  not  "stolen  time"  from  another  subject,  yet 
she  may  be  quite  unable  to  give  defmite  hgures. 

The  figures  here  given  a])proximate  the  truth  as 
nearly  as  is  possible  under  the  conditions  of  the 
exj)eriment. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  teachers,  the  time 
spent  upon  illustrative  work,  over  and  above  the 
regular  period  devoted  to  the  subject,  did  not,  in 
any  case,  exceed  one  hour  per  week.  Even  this 
excess  was  for  only  pari  of  the  lime.  The  report 
states  further  Ihal,  in  half  the  inslanccs,  the  frac- 
tion of  an  hour  so  used  consisted  of  time  not  included 
in  the  regular  school  |)crio(l. 

These  conditions  reduce  the  amount  of  extra 
time  ref|uirc(i  for  the  work  to  so  small  a  figure  that 
it  is  scarcely  worth  considering;    but,  if  it  is  con- 


2o8  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

sidered  at  all,  it  is,  according  to  the  report  of  the 
teachers,  fully  justified  by  the  increased  interest  of 
the  pupils  in  their  work. 

These  facts  justify  the  conclusion  that  illustrative 
handwork  may  be  used  as  a  method  of  study  and 
recitation  without  increasing  the  amount  of  time 
allotted  to  the  subject. 

(3)  Concerning  the  value  of  illustrative  methods : 

The  problem  stipulates  that  the  time  spent  upon 
illustrative  work  must  be  profitably  used.  The  ex- 
tent to  which  this  was  accomplished  is  indicated  in 
the  answers  to  questions  VI,  VII,  and  VIII  of  the 
Report  of  Teachers.  The  statement  concerning 
failures  also  has  a  slight  bearing  upon  this  point. 

The  statements  of  the  teachers  show  that  the 
work  had  a  tendency  to  increase  interest  in  the 
subjects  illustrated,  in  reading  for  information  re- 
lated to  these  subjects,  and  in  preparing  the  work 
in  more  artistic  form  than  that  used  before  these 
methods  were  introduced. 

These  statements  indicate  also,  though  as  yet 
there  are  no  reliable  statistics  to  prove  it,  that  the 
teachers  are  strongly  inclined  to  the  belief  that 
illustrative  methods  help  indifferent  and  backward 
pupils  to  greater  interest  and  better  understanding 
than  are  common  under  the  usual  methods.  The 
statement  concerning  failures,  so  far  as  it  bears 
upon  this  point,  upholds  the  opinion  of  the  teachers. 
So  many  other  factors  enter  into  the  general  averages 


REPORT    OF   TEACHERS,    WITH    SUMMARY        209 

upon  which  promotions  are  based,  that  very  Httle 
importance  can  be  attached  to  these  figures  as  evi- 
dence concerning  the  value  of  illustrative  methods. 
There  is,  however,  ample  evidence  of  trustworthy 
nature  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  illustrative 
methods  are  not  only  possible  in  the  ordinary  school- 
room, but  that  they  are  also  profitable. 


Fig.  gi.  —  Dutch  Home  Life.     Grade  4  A.     Franklin,  Ind. 

(4)  Concerning  the  training  of  teachers : 

The  necessity  for  technical  1  raining  on  the  part  of 

the  teacher  is  proportionate  to  the  emphasis  to  be 

placed  u])on  technical  accuracy  in   the  work   to  be 

done. 

In  ilkistralive  methods,  such  as  herein  described, 

technical  training  on  the  |)art  of  the  teacher  is  not 


2IO  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

essential.  This  is  so  for  two  reasons :  First,  since 
the  emj)hasis  is  placed  upon  effect,  the  structures  are 
for  the  most  part  of  temporary  nature  and  do  not 
require  technical  accuracy ;  second,  the  placing  of 
emphasis  upon  the  value  of  the  work  as  a  means  of 
self-expression,  demands  that  the  pupil  shall  be 
allowed  to  find  his  own  way  to  a  very  great  extent 
rather  than  that  he  shall  be  expected  to  follow 
definite  instructions. 

These  considerations  seem  to  justify  the  conclusion 
that  technical  training  for  the  teacher,  though  of 
obvious  advantage,  is  in  no  degree  essential  to  the 
successful  use  of  illustrative  ftiethods. 

(5)   Concerning  forms  of  illustration  : 

During  the  course  of  the  experiments  certain  in- 
teresting facts  developed  concerning  the  various 
forms  of  illustration. 

Poster  making  proved  to  be  a  most  helpful  and 
interesting  medium  through  which  the  children 
could  show,  in  a  comprehensive  way,  the  main 
ideas  they  had  gained  from  their  study.  The 
process  interested  them,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
helped  to  fix  the  facts  more  firmly  in  their  minds. 
Poster  making  proved  to  be  especially  well  suited 
to  reviews  as  a  means  of  gathering  the  important 
facts  together,  in  both  history  and  geography.  It 
also  brought  about  a  marked  improvement  in  spac- 
ing and  lettering,  which  was  due  rather  to  the  ability 
of    the    pupils    to   see   the  value   of  good   work   in 


REPORT    OF   TEACHERS,    WITH    SUMMARY        211 

these  particulars  than  to  the  urging  of  the  teacher. 
The  posters  made  these  values  self-evident. 

Illustrated  booklets  proved  to  be  a  strong  incentive 
to  good  work  in  composition,  both  in  quantity  and 
quahty.  In  a  series  of  Hero  Books,  for  example, 
each  pupil  chose  to  write  about  a  greater  number  of 
heroes  than  when  the  ordinary  method  was  used. 
It  was  felt  that  the  book  must  be  made  worthy  of 
its  name.  In  a  set  of  Tree  Studies  containing 
sketches  and  descriptions  of  common  trees,  which 
were  not  examined  by  the  teacher  until  completed, 
over  one-fourth  the  number  were  without  errors  in 
spelHng  and  ])unctuation.  In  these  respects,  how- 
ever, special  emphasis  had  been  laid  upon  individual 
responsibility.  The  making  of  the  booklets  Ufted 
composition  to  a  higher  level  of  permanence  and 
dignity.  It  made  it  seem  more  worth  while  to  the 
pu])ils  U)  j)ut  energy  into  their  preparation  ;  greater 
eflort  was  made  to  have  something  worth  saying, 
and  to  say  it  well.  The  use  of  illustrations  added 
still  further  to  the-  interest  of  tlie  work. 

In  sandtable  illustrations,  the  tendency  during 
the  lirst  year  was  toward  elaborate  representations 
and  a  desire  lo  get  something  which  looked  well 
when  fmished,  the  noxilly  of  the  work  ai>]iea]ing 
to  both  teachers  and  pupils,  hnring  the  second 
year  there  was  a  greater  willingness  on  the  part  of 
the  teachers  to  u'-e  the  sandlable  (  hi(ll\-  for  very 
temporary  illustration  whi(  h  (ould  be  made  during 


212 


ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 


the  recitation  to  illustrate  some  topic  under  im- 
mediate discussion,  and  there  was  also  a  greater 
readiness  to  be  satisfied  when  the  points  were  made 
clear  without  adding  superfluous  details. 

On  the  part  of  the  children,  the  center  of  interest 
moved  forward  toward  constructions  of  a  better 
type.     The  temporary  and  imperfect  constructions 


Fig.  92.  —  BoonesboiuLi^'h  bloLkailc.     Cjnulc  5B.     Franklin,  IncJ. 

used  on  the  sandtable  awakened  a  desire  to  make 
representations  which  were  more  perfect  models. 

The  very  temporary  and  spontaneous  type  of 
sandtable  illustration  was  conceded  by  the  teachers 
to  be  of  more  value  than  the  elaborate  representa- 
tions. 

In  construction,  the  children  showed  a  strong 
tendency  to  improve  upon  what  had  been  done 
before  by  themselves  and  by  others.     Not  only  was 


REPORT   OF   TEACHERS,    WITH    SUMMARY         217, 

a  sixth-grade  boy  unsatisfied  with  the  degree  of 
attainment  which  had  satisfied  him  in  the  fifth 
grade,  but  each  attempt  at  representation  had  very 
ob\dous  defects  which  the  next  worker  felt  a  desire 
to  correct.  During  the  first  year,  in  making  a  model 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  the  general  appearance  was 
all  that  was  aimed  at,  but  in  the  second  year,  in 
two  instances,  small  groups  of  boys  persevered  in 
their  efforts  until  the  boats  were  actually  lifted  up 
and  down  through  the  locks. 

These  facts  point  to  the  very  obvious  conclusion 
that  when  normal  children  are  allowed  to  express 
themselves  freely  through  projects  which  seem  to 
them  worth  while,  they  are  anxious  to  secure  the 
best  results  of  which  they  are  capable.  They  are 
able  to  see  and  aj)preciate  defects,  and  are  anxious 
to  correct  them.  They  are  not  satisfied  to  remain 
on  a  low  level  of  attainment,  but  strive  constantly 
to  surpass  their  own  best  efforts. 

The  evident  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  the  fore- 
going study  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 

(i)  Illustrative  methods  increase  the  interest  of 
l)Uj)ils  in  their  work,  and  may  be  used  without  in- 
creasing the  lime  allotted  lo  Ihe  subject. 

(2)  The  inaccuracies  incident  to  the  temporary 
nature  of  illustrative  jjrojects  do  not  liMid  to  en- 
courage carelessness,  but  when  coupled  with  inter- 
esting subject  matter  tend  to  awaken  a  desire  to 
[)roduce  better  results. 


214  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

(3)  Technical  training  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
is  not  essential,  though  of  decided  advantage. 

(4)  Illustrative  handwork  may  be  carried  on  in 
the  ordinary  schoolroom  at  very  small  expense  for 
equipment  and  material. 


CHAPTER  VII 
A   COMPELLING   MOTIVE 

At  the  foundation  of  most  of  our  theories  of 
education  and  discipline  Hes  the  old  psychological 
law,  that  we  enter  into  vigorously  and  tend  to  repeat 
pleasant  experiences,  and  that  we  avoid  as  far  as 
possible  unpleasant  experiences.  The  emphasis 
which  we  place  upon  the  positive  or  negative  side 
of  this  proposition  makes  all  the  difference  between 
the  teacher  who  believes  in  making  things  hard  in 
school  to  prepare  for  the  stern  duties  of  life  and  the 
one  who  fmds  life  full  of  joy  and  beauty,  and  succeeds 
in  helping  her  pupils  to  find  much  of  it. 

If  we  place  the  chief  em])hasis  upon  the  negative 
side  we  see  mistakes  and  their  consequences  larger 
than  anything  else.  We  try  to  keej)  the  children 
in  the  straight  and  narrow  path  of  duty  by  mak- 
ing it  unj)leasant  for  them  to  walk  elsewhere.  We 
pronounce  "  r/z^/y  "  as  if  it  were  spelled  always  in 
ca])itals  and  printed  in  rhill  gray.  We  teach  by  our 
actions  that  duty  is  always  liard  and  unpleasant, 
but  we  conscientiously  try  l«»  make  t he  (onsecjuences 
of  neglect  of  duty  more  unj)ieasant  still  and  imagine 
this  will  develop  a  high  moral  standard  among  our 

2IS 


2l6  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

pupils.  To  our  sorrow  some  of  them  choose  the 
present  pleasures  of  the  downward  road  unmindful 
of  the  future  consequences.  Small  John  plays 
truant  and  goes  fishing,  though  he  knows  double 
the  lost  time  will  be  made  up  at  recesses  and  after 
school  at  hard  work.  In  spite  of  our  punishments 
and  warnings  many  wrong  things  still  hold  a  tre- 
mendous power  of  attraction,  and  sometimes  we 
sigh  and  wish  it  were  as  easy  to  do  right  as  it  is  to 
do  wrong.  We  need  a  compelling  motive  toward 
right  doing  which  like  the  music  of  the  Pied  Piper 
will  be  irresistible. 

Since  the  negative  interpretation  of  the  proposi- 
tion does  not  attain  our  aims  satisfactorily,  it  be- 
hooves us  to  study  its  positive  side.  If  we  reverse 
our  emphasis  and  instead  of  increasing  the  un- 
pleasant consequences  of  evil  increase  the  rewards 
of  right  doing,  we  are  likely  to  find  the  compelling 
motive  we  seek.  It  sounds  well  to  say  virtue  is  its 
own  reward,  but  the  greatest  of  teachers  bade  us  be 
wise  as  serpents.  The  powers  of  evil  are  ever  at 
work  and  employ  ingenious  means  to  entice  young 
feet  out  of  the  straight  road.  We  must  be  at  least 
as  vigorous  and  resourceful  in  defeating  their  efforts. 
The  school  must  compete,  whether  it  will  or  no,  with 
the  picture  show,  the  swimming  pool,  the  busy 
street.  These  things  are  not  necessarily  evils  in 
themselves,  but  the  thoughts  of  them  may  and  will 
form  a  screen  between  the  pupil's  eyes  and  the  book 


A   COMPELLING   MOTIVE 


217 


2 

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3 

o 

3 


J3 


2l8  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

we  would  have  him  study,  unless  we  are  able  to 
make  the  attraction  of  the  topic  strong  enough  to 
overbalance  the  force  of  the  outside  influences. 

If  we  would  do  this  we  must  first  of  all  study  these 
compelling  forces  and  find  out  the  secret  of  their 
attraction.  Having  found  it,  we  must  lay  hold 
of  its  power  and  apply  it  to  good  ends.  The  picture 
show  is  not  bad  in  itself  and  its  power  as  an  educative 
force  is  already  being  set  to  work  in  some  of  our 
progressive  schools.  These  progressive  schools  are 
also  recognizing  in  the  lure  of  the  swimming  hole 
the  need  for  physical  activity  and  development,  and 
are  providing  accommodations  for  physical  educa- 
tion. Much  more  might  be  done  than  is  done  by 
the  schools  which  think  themselves  too  poor  to  buy 
equipment,  if  the  means  at  hand  were  fully  de- 
veloped. The  teacher  who  does  not  know  how  to 
play  will  find  the  study  of  games  and  their  power  a 
paying  investment  of  time  and  energy.  The  street, 
above  all  things  else,  is  the  place  where  things  are 
being  done.  Something  is  always  going  on  and 
interesting  things  happen.  If  we  are  wise  we  will 
seek  here  another  compelling  motive  for  the  educa- 
tive process.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make  stores  and 
shops  of  our  classrooms  nor  to  begin  over  early  a 
narrow  vocational  training,  but  we  must  make  the 
school  a  place  where  things  are  being  done,  where 
something  is  always  going  on,  and  where  interesting 
things  happen. 


A   COMPELLING    MOTIVE  219 

Many  teachers  object  to  projects  which  break  into 
the  routine  and  " interfere  with  the  work,"  yet  often 
these  same  projects  by  their  compelHng  interest 
make  the  children  work  harder  and  develop  faster 
than  they  ever  do  through  the  routine  methods. 
Ella  Flagg  Young  is  quoted  as  sa>dng,  "What  our 
schools  need  is  more  intensity  and  less  extensity." 
Intensity  of  action  is  prompted  by  intensity  of 
feeling.  Intensity  of  feehng  is  seldom  coupled 
with  that  which  docs  not  touch  our  lives  closely. 
It,  therefore,  behooves  us  to  study  into  the  lives  of 
the  children  and  find  where  their  thoughts  live  and 
what  activities  make  a  compelling  appeal.  We 
shall  then  know  where  to  look  for  motive  power. 

If,  instead  of  emphasizing  the  dire  consequences 
which  befall  the  evildoer,  we  can  make  the  conse- 
quences of  right  behavior  so  attractive  that  they 
compel  attention,  the  battle  is  won  in  a  great  major- 
ity of  cases.  For  the  few  that  are  left,  the  way  of 
the  transgressor  is  apt  to  be  hard  enough  if  the 
offender  is  allowed  to  feel  the  full  weight  of  the 
consequences  of  his  offense.  If  we  stress  the  posi- 
tive side  of  the  proposition,  we  will  j)lan  our  work 
upon  the  theory  that  ])Ieasant  ex])eriences  will  be 
entered  into  vigorously  and  will  ])n)l)ahly  be  re- 
peated. We  will  then  tic  u])  Ihc  ex])eriences  which 
are  worth  re[)eating  with  ])roccsses  which  are  fas- 
cinating enough  to  inspire  vigorous  effort. 

The  Indiislrial-Arls   Magazine  (juotes  George  H. 


220  ILLUSTRATIVE   HANDWORK 

Knox  as  saying:  "The  real  difference  between  those 
who  succeed  and  those  who  fail  is,  the  one  thinks 
he  can  and  the  other  thinks  he  cannot.  The  one 
discovers  himself  and  the  other  does  not.  The  one 
learns  that  he  can  do  things  and  the  idea  arouses, 
thrills,  inspires  him ;  the  other  thinks  that  all  great 
things  were  intended  for  some  one  else,  so  he  misses 
the  great  experience,  the  great  trials,  and  the  great 
rewards." 

The  projects  outlined  in  this  book  are  offered  in 
the  sincere  hope  that  they  may  suggest  a  compelling 
motive  for  work  in  the  middle  grades,  and  help  to 
overcome  the  lure  of  the  busy  world  outside  of 
school,  which  attracts  so  many  before  they  are  pre- 
pared to  meet  its  demands.  It  is  hoped  that  through 
the  provision  of  simple,  yet  interesting  and  thought- 
provoking  occupations,  which  may  be  carried  on  in 
any  school  by  any  teacher,  the  liveliest  boys  may 
find  school  the  happiest  place  they  know,  the  timid 
children  may  discover  themselves  and  know  the 
joy  of  successful  effort,  and  that  each  and  all,  both 
in  school  and  out,  may  find  the  full  measure  of  life's 
richest  experiences. 


REFERENCES   FOR   CLASSROOM   USE 

The  Eskimo  Twins Perkins 

The  Japanese  Twins Perkins 

The  Dutch  Twins Perkins 

The  Mexican  Twins Perkins 

The  Irish  Twins Perkins 

Around  the  World  Series Tolman 

How  We  Are  Fed Chamberlain 

How  We  Are  Clothed Chamberlain 

How  We  Are  Sheltered Chaml)erlain 

How  We  Travel       Chamberlain 

How  the  World  Is  Fed Carpenter 

How  the  World  Is  Clothed Carpenter 

How  the  World  Is  Housed Carpenter 

The  Farmer  and  His  Friends     ....  Tappan 

Diggers  in  the  Earth Tai)i)an 

Makers  of  Many  Things Taj^pan 

Travelers  and  Traveling Tajipan 

The  Continents  and  Their  T^'oplc  .     .     .  Chanil)erlain 

Geogra[)hical  Readers Winslow 

The  Wt)rld  and  Its  People  series    .     .     .  Knai)]) 

Geographical  Readers Cari)enter 

The  Worlrl  at  Work  series Dutton 

From  Trail  lo  Railway lirigliam 

The  Hird  Woman Chandler 

Cave,  Mound,  and  Lake  Dwellers.     ,     .  Holbroke 

Hans,  The  ICskimo Scandlin 

Eskimo  Lanfl       Hawks 

Industrial  Studies Allen 

221 


222  ILLUSTRATIVE    HANDWORK 

Representative  Cities  of  the  United 

States Hotchkiss 

People  of  Other  Lands      ....  Shaw 

American  Inventors  and  Inventions  Mowly 

The  Youth's  Companion  series  .     .  Lane 

Series  of  Readers Dopp 

How  Man  Conquered  Nature    .     .  Reynolds 

Builders  of  Our  Country  ....  Southworth 

The  Wheat  Industry Bengtson  and  Griffith 

The  Philippines McClintic 

The  Doers Hopkins 

Textiles Dooly 

Three  Industrial  Nations ....  Blaich 

New  Introductory  Geography   .     .  Tarr  and  McMurry 

New  Complete  Geography    .     .     .  Tarr  and  McMurry 

Essentials  of  Geography   ....  BrighamandMcl-'arland 

Seven  Little  Sisters Andrews 

Ten  Boys Andrews 

Strange  People Starr 

Stories  from  Northern  Myths    .     .  E.  K.  Baker 

Story  of  the  Romans Guerber 

Story  of  the  Greeks Tappan 

Japan  in  Pictures Sladen 

The  Snow  Baby Peary 

Docas,  The  Indian  Boy    ....  Sneddan 

Our  Country's  Story Tappan 

Children  of  the  CHf! Wiley  and  Edick 

Railroad  Guides 
Steamship  Catalogs 

References  for  Teachers 

Bagley  —  The  Educative  Process. 

Ballard  —  Handwork  as  an  Educational  Medium. 

Bennett  —  The  Place  of  Manual  Arts  in  Education. 


REFERENCES    FOR    CLASSROOM    USE  223 

Bone  —  The  Service  of  the  Hand  in  the  School. 

Ch.\rters  —  Methods  of  Teaching. 

Dewey  —  The  School  and  the  Child  ;    School  and  Society  ; 
The  Child  and  the  Curriculum  ;    Schools  of  To-morrow. 

Dopp  —  The  Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Education. 

O'Shea  —  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education. 

Row  —  The  Educational  Meaning  of  Manual  Arts  and  In- 
dustries. 

Russell  —  The   School   and  Industrial  Life.     Educational 
Review,  December  1909. 

Sargent  —  Fine  and  Industrial  Arts. 

Scott  —  Social  Education. 

Sykes  and  Bonser  —  Industrial  Education.    Teachers  Col-- 
lege  Record,  September,  191 1. 
Educational  Review,  October,  191 1. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


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Bagley       Classsroom      Management.       Its 

Principles  and  Technique      .     .  1.25 

Craftsmanship  in  Teaching      .     .  i.io 

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Bigelow Sex  Education 1.22 

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and  Rural  Communities    ...  i 
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MODERN   PEDAGOGY— Con/mue(/ 

Home        .....     Philosophy  of  Education     .     .     .     $1.50 

Psychological  Principles  of  Educa- 
tion   1.75 

Idealism  in  Education     ....       1.25 
Story-Telling,    Questioning    and 

Studying i.io 

Howerth The  Art  of  Education     ....       i.oo 

Huey Psychologyand  Pedagogy  of  Read- 
ing        1.40 

Hummel  and  Hummel     Materials  and  Methods  in  High 

School  Agriculture     ....       1.25 
Jessup  and  Cofifman    .     The  Supervision  of  Arithmetic    .       i.io 
Johnson,  Henry      .     .     Teaching  of  History  in  Elemen- 
tary and  Secondary  Schools     .       1.40 

Kahn  and  Klein  Commercial  Education,  Principles 

and  Methods  in 1.40 

Kennedy Fundamentals  in  Methods        .     .  1.25 

Kerschensteiner      .     .     The  Idea  of  the  Industrial  School  .50 
Kilpatrick,  V.  E.                Departmental   Teaching   in    Ele- 
mentary Schools .60 

Kilpatrick,  W.  B.  Froebel's  Kindergarten  Principles 

Critically  Examined     ....  .90 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.  .     .     Fundamentals  of  Child  Study       .  0.00 

Lee        Play  in  Education 1.50 

McKeever      ....     Training  the  Girl 1.50 

The  Industrial  Training  of  the  Boy         .50 

MacVannel     ....     Outline  of  a  Course  in  the  Philoso- 
phy of  Education .90 

Monroe Princii)les  of  Secondary  Education       1.90 

Text-liook  in  the  History  of  Edu- 
cation           1.90 

.Syllabus  of  a  Course  of  Study  on 
the  History  and  Princij)les  of 
Education .50 

Source  Book  in  the  History  of  ImIu- 
cation  for  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Period        2.25 


THK    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 


BOSTON 
CHICAGO 


NEW  YORK 
SAN   FRANCISCO 


ATLANTA 
DALLAS 


MODERN   PEDAGOGY  — Con^nue^ 


Monroe Brief   Course   in   the  History   of 

Education $1.40 

Cyclopedia  of  Education,  5  Vols.  25.00 

O'Shea Dynamic  Factors  in  Education     .  1.25 

Linguistic  Development  in  Educa- 
tion         1.25 

Pearson Vitalized  School 1.40 

Perry Management  of  a  City  School      .  1.25 

Outlines  of  School  Administration  1.40 

Pyle The  Examination  of  School  Chil- 
dren      .50 

Sachs The  American  Secondary  School  i.io 

Sisson Essentials  of  Character       ...  i.oo 

Smith All  the  Children  of  All  the  People 

(Teachers'  Edition)    .     .     .     .  i.io 

Sneath  and  Hodges     .     Moral  Training  in  the  School  and 

Home .80 

Starch Educational  Measurements     .     .  1.25 

Experiments  in  Educational  Psy- 
chology        .90 

Strayer A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching 

Process 1.25 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy     How  to  Teach 1.30 

Strayer  and  Thomdike     Education  Administration.  Quan- 
titative Studies        2.00 

Taylor Handbook  of  Vocational  Education  i.oo 

Principles  and  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing Reading .90 

Thorndike      ....     Education:  A  First  Book    .     .     .  1.25 
Vandewalker.     .     .     .     Kindergarten,  The,  in  American 

Education 1.25 

Ward The  Montessori  Method  and  the 

American  School 1.25 

Wayland How  to  Teach  American  History  i.io 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  ATLANTA 

CHICAGO  SAN  FRANCISCO  DALLAS 


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